社會(huì)學(xué)導(dǎo)論

AnIntroductiontoSociology

第七講社會(huì)生活的組織化-4：群體和組織

Lecture07OrganizingSocialLife-4:GroupsandOrganizations

北京大學(xué)社會(huì)學(xué)系

劉能

這張開篇照片告訴我們什么？這是一張關(guān)于年輕男性時(shí)尚用品展銷會(huì)的招貼畫它使用了“AREYOUIN？”這樣一句旨在啟動(dòng)“認(rèn)同感消費(fèi)”的廣告語這張招貼畫的目標(biāo)受眾本身就構(gòu)成了一個(gè)群體[稱其為亞文化群體也許更恰當(dāng)]這張招貼畫中出現(xiàn)了哪些時(shí)尚消費(fèi)的元素？DJ極限體育影像技術(shù)[videotechnology]……I開篇研究：組織個(gè)案分析社會(huì)的麥當(dāng)勞化[TheMcDonaldizationofSociety]社會(huì)學(xué)家GeorgeRitzer[2001]麥當(dāng)勞化的定義：它描述了在美國發(fā)展起來的快餐業(yè)運(yùn)作原則是如何逐漸侵入并主宰了全世界范圍內(nèi)越來越多的產(chǎn)業(yè)部門[Thistermof“McDonaldizationofSociety”describeshowtheprinciplesoffast-foodrestaurantsdevelopedintheUnitedStateshavecometodominatemoreandmoresectorsofsocietiesthroughouttheworld.]研究結(jié)論“McDonaldizationaffectsnotonlytherestaurantindustry,butalsoeducation,work,healthcare,travel,leisure,dieting,politics,thefamily,andvirtuallyeveryaspectofsociety….”“Theessenceofthissocialprocessis,thebusinessprinciplesonwhichthefastfoodindustryisfounded—efficiency,calculability,predictability,andcontrol—havechangednotonlythewayAmericansdobusinessandruntheirorganizations,butthewaytheylivetheirlives.”麥當(dāng)勞化的負(fù)面后效ThewasteandenvironmentaldegradationcreatedbybillionsofdisposablecontainersThedehumanizedworkroutinesoffast-foodcrews

麥當(dāng)勞化的輻射領(lǐng)域美發(fā)店電視福音教派/羅馬教廷的網(wǎng)站香港的生育服務(wù)機(jī)構(gòu)醫(yī)療診所[McDentist/McDoctors]澳大利亞咖啡連鎖店[McCafe]兒童照看中心[McChild]賽馬馴養(yǎng)中心[McStables]媒體巨人USToday[McPaper]……II本講要點(diǎn)Thislectureconsiderstheimpactofgroupsandorganizationsonsocialinteraction.人們?cè)诖笮腿后w中的行為和小型群體中的行為一樣嗎？如何管理好大型的組織？當(dāng)代社會(huì)變遷對(duì)群體結(jié)構(gòu)和個(gè)體成員有何影響？本講內(nèi)容構(gòu)成群體類型學(xué)[typesofgroups]了解組織：科層制[bureaucracy]/志愿組織[voluntaryorganizations]/組織變遷[organizationalchange]技術(shù)對(duì)工作場(chǎng)所的影響[technology’simpactontheworkplace]III群體類型學(xué)首屬[初級(jí)]群體[primarygroups]和次級(jí)群體[secondarygroups]內(nèi)群[in-groups]和外群[outgroups]焦點(diǎn)小組[focusgroups]參考群體[referencegroups]小群體[smallgroups]群體規(guī)模及其內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)[groupsizeanditsinternalstructure]何為群體？前面第五講我們已經(jīng)給出了群體的定義，現(xiàn)在我們?cè)賮頊亓?xí)一下：Agroupisanynumberofpeoplewithsimilarnorms,values,andexpectationswhointeractwithoneanotheronaregularbase.界定性特征：1)membersofagroupsharesomesenseofbelonging;2)theyobserveagreed-onvaluesandsocialnorms.因此，群體不同于以下兩類集合體人的臨時(shí)聚集[aggregatesofpeople]，比如看同一場(chǎng)電影的人群/同乘一架飛機(jī)的乘客/街上發(fā)生車禍時(shí)在場(chǎng)的所有目擊者[happentobetogether]人的社會(huì)類別[socialcategory]，比如男性/女性/青少年/退休人員等[whoshareacommonfeaturebutotherwisedonotacttogether]首屬[初級(jí)]群體CharlesHortonCooley[1902]:Primarygroupreferstoasmallgroupcharacterizedbyintimate,face-to-faceassociationandcooperation.[Closebondoffriendship]首屬[初級(jí)]群體的例子MembersofastreetgangMembersofafamilylivinginthesamehouseholdAgroupofsistersinacollegesorority首屬[初級(jí)]群體的作用Primarygroupsplayapivotalrolebothinsocializationprocess,andinthedevelopmentofrolesandstatuses.Primarygroupscanalsobeinstrumentalinaperson’sday-to-dayexistence.次級(jí)群體Secondarygroupreferstoaformal,impersonalgroupinwhichthereislittlesocialintimacyormutualunderstanding.次級(jí)群體的例子企業(yè)協(xié)會(huì)[businessassociations]高校大型班級(jí)/大課[largecollegeclasses]接納太多會(huì)員的俱樂部[largeandincreasinglyimpersonalsocialclubs]工作場(chǎng)所中的特定職業(yè)群體[occupationalgroupsincertainindustry,suchasthoseformedbypizzadeliveryemployees]作為次級(jí)群體的比薩外送員社會(huì)學(xué)家PatrickKinkade和MichaelKatovich研究了比薩外送員通過上班期間[一起等候訂單到來]和下班期間[在酒吧]的社會(huì)交往而發(fā)展起來的社會(huì)關(guān)系其中一人花了18個(gè)月在得克薩斯州的沃斯堡[Ft.Worth,Texas]的三個(gè)比薩店打工，進(jìn)行了參與式的觀察結(jié)論1：比薩外送員之間建立社會(huì)關(guān)系的兩種主要途徑——1）平時(shí)工作中的社會(huì)合作和社會(huì)交換；2）他們?cè)诠ぷ髦信紶柊l(fā)生危險(xiǎn)狀況時(shí)的相互支持和相互幫助結(jié)論2：比薩外送員的工作風(fēng)險(xiǎn)很大，但報(bào)酬微薄。盡管并沒有統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)展示他們職業(yè)的危險(xiǎn)性，但每一個(gè)快遞外送員都深知危險(xiǎn)無時(shí)不在，因此，他們社交中的核心話題之一，就是談?wù)撨@些潛在的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，以及如何避免風(fēng)險(xiǎn)[在18個(gè)月的觀察期中，一共發(fā)生了2起被劫事件，8起被跟蹤事件，4起交通事故]結(jié)論3：比薩外送員的亞文化特征——尊崇男性氣概|充斥著種族和性別偏見[如常常將自己工作中面臨的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)歸咎于來自種族和族群社區(qū)的成員，但其實(shí)并無證據(jù)支持這種說法；常常吹噓自己如何如何有異性緣，夸口說自己如何受到女性顧客的垂青]結(jié)論4：比薩外送員的一個(gè)類型學(xué)喜劇演員[TheComedian]：他們以幽默的心態(tài)減緩到高風(fēng)險(xiǎn)區(qū)外送所引發(fā)的焦慮感冒險(xiǎn)家[TheAdventurer]：他們喜歡冒險(xiǎn)，并借由危險(xiǎn)狀況的處理來檢驗(yàn)自我們能力拒絕現(xiàn)實(shí)者[TheDenier]：他們通過說服自己沒有風(fēng)險(xiǎn)或風(fēng)險(xiǎn)不大來減輕內(nèi)心的焦慮宿命論者[TheFatalist]：他們明白存在哪些風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，但不做任何努力來回避這些風(fēng)險(xiǎn)老鳥[ThePro]：他們?cè)谶@一行干了很久，經(jīng)驗(yàn)豐富，已經(jīng)做到管理層，或在多家店服務(wù)過結(jié)論5：這個(gè)次級(jí)團(tuán)體的成員主要依靠次級(jí)群體的認(rèn)可，而非金錢報(bào)酬，來獲得成就滿足感；因此，次級(jí)團(tuán)體的成員資格和身份，對(duì)于他們來說就顯得格外重要了內(nèi)群和外群WilliamGrahamSumner[1906]:Anin-groupcanbedefinedasanygrouporcategorytowhichpeoplefeeltheybelong.Theveryexistenceofanin-groupimpliesthatthereisanout-groupviewedas‘they’or‘them’,agrouporcategorytowhichpeoplefeeltheydonotbelong,ortowhichtheyfeelantagonistic,orbywhichtheyfeelthreatened,orfeeldifferentculturallyorracially.內(nèi)外群關(guān)系的三大特征社會(huì)正統(tǒng)與歧視：內(nèi)群體通常覺得自己比外群體正統(tǒng)且更優(yōu)越對(duì)抗性價(jià)值觀：內(nèi)群體認(rèn)為恰當(dāng)?shù)男袨?，外群體往往認(rèn)為不能接受雙重標(biāo)準(zhǔn)：同樣一種行為，外群體做不行，但內(nèi)群體做行，如恐怖主義攻擊[如以紅色恐怖還擊白色恐怖]內(nèi)外群對(duì)抗關(guān)系的負(fù)面社會(huì)效應(yīng)作為外群體的弱勢(shì)群體的極端反抗[Rejectedadolescentsinschoolsnation-wide,overwhelmedbypersonalandfamilyproblems,peergrouppressures,academicresponsibilities,ormediaimagesofviolence,havestruckoutagainstmorepopularclassmates.]挑釁外群體的內(nèi)群體成員，一般來說，其人格上會(huì)表現(xiàn)出一定的缺陷[suchassufferingfromlimitedtimeandattentionfromworkingparents,thusaproactiveactionisservedasameansofelicitingattentionfromeithertheout-grouporthein-group]焦點(diǎn)小組RobertK.Merton[1940]:Focusgroupsarecomposedof10to15peopleassembledbyaresearchertodiscussapredeterminedtopic,suchasanewconsumerproductorcommunityneeds.Itwasfirstdevelopedtoevaluatetherelativeeffectivenessofradioadvertising.Guidedbyamoderator,themembers,whoareselectedtoberepresentativeofthegeneralpublic,offertheirownopinionsonthetopicandreacttoothermembers’views.過去60年里的主要使用領(lǐng)域AdvertisersCorporations最近復(fù)興的社會(huì)科學(xué)興趣CommunityopinionWorkplacemorale…參考群體Sociologistscallanygroupthatindividualsuseasastandardforevaluatingthemselvesandtheirownbehaviorareferencegroup.Ahighschoolstudentwhoaspiretojoinasocialcircleofhip-hopmusicdevoteeswillpatternhisorherbehaviorafterthatofthegroup.參考群體的三大作用參考群體設(shè)定并強(qiáng)化了某種行為標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和信仰[settingandenforcingstandardsofbehaviorandbeliefs]參考群體成為評(píng)價(jià)行為和認(rèn)知差距的參照系[servingasastandardagainstwhichpeoplecanmeasurethemselvesandothers]參考群體促進(jìn)了預(yù)期社會(huì)化[helpingtheprocessofanticipatorysocialization]小群體Thetermsmallgroupreferstoagroupsmallenoughforallmemberstointeractsimultaneously—thatis,totalkwithoneanotheroratleastbewellacquainted.如何區(qū)分首屬[初級(jí)]群體/次級(jí)群體/小群體？Amanufacturer[suchasP&G]maybringtogetheritsseven-memberregionalsalestafftwiceayearforanintensivesalesconference.Thesalespeople,wholiveindifferentcitiesandrarelyseeoneanother,constituteasmallsecondarygroup,notaprimarygroup.小群體都是非正式的和無結(jié)構(gòu)的嗎？Venkatesh[2000]:AsanethnographicstudyofstreetgangsinChicagohaverevealed,therearedistinctandpredictableprocessesatworkinthefunctioningofsmallgroup.Anelaboratestructureresemblingthatofthefamilybusinesswasfound…Besidesstaffingtheeconomicnetworkofthedrugtrade,gangmembersdeveloprelationshipswithtalentleadersinpublichousingprojectsandparticipateinnon-delinquentsocialactivitiesimportanttothemaintenanceoftheirauthorityintheneighborhood.群體規(guī)模及其內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)群體規(guī)模的社會(huì)效應(yīng)群體規(guī)模和關(guān)系的親密性[groupsizeandintimacy]：群體規(guī)模越大，內(nèi)部關(guān)系的親密程度越低，人際關(guān)系的工具性程度就越高群體規(guī)模和領(lǐng)導(dǎo)權(quán)分配[groupsizeandleadership]：群體規(guī)模越大，每一個(gè)成員的話語權(quán)就越小，每一個(gè)成員的意見就越不重要，核心成員就越有可能成為影響力很大的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)層一員群體規(guī)模和責(zé)任分配[groupsizeandresponsibilitydistribution]：群體規(guī)模越大，每個(gè)人都在期待著其他人去承擔(dān)高成本的責(zé)任行動(dòng)，因此，規(guī)避責(zé)任的現(xiàn)象在群體規(guī)模變大的情況下最容易出現(xiàn)[這也就解釋了為什么公共場(chǎng)合中，見義勇為行為的稀缺性]GeorgSimmel：形式社會(huì)學(xué)和群體內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)兩人關(guān)系[dyad]：atwo-membergroup.Strength:levelofintimacyWeakness:threatsoftermination三人關(guān)系[triad]:athree-membergroup.Thenewmemberhasmanywaysofinteractingwithandinfluencingthedynamicsofthegroup.Thenewpersonmayplayaunifyingrole.[新生嬰兒穩(wěn)定了夫妻關(guān)系]Aermayalsoplayamediatingrole.[三人宿舍里總有個(gè)和事老]Amemberofthetriadmaychoosetoemployadivide-and-rulestrategy.[分而治之，挑動(dòng)其他兩人斗，自己從中漁利]聯(lián)盟[coalition]：Acoalitionisatemporaryorpermanentalliancegearedtowardacommongoal.WilliamJuliusWilson[1999]hasdescribedcommunity-basedorganizationinTexasthatincludeWhitesandLatinos,workingclassandaffluent,whohavebandedtogethertoworkforimprovedsidewalks,betterdrainagesystems,andcomprehensivestreetpaving.IV了解組織正式組織[Formalorganizations]科層制的核心特征[Keycharacteristicsofabureaucracy]科層制和組織文化[Bureaucracyandorganizationalcultures]志愿組織[Voluntaryassociations]組織變遷[Organizationalchanges]正式組織Aformalorganizationisagroupdesignedforaspecialpurposeandstructuredformaximumefficiency.郵政服務(wù)[UPS]快餐連鎖店[McDonald’s]樂團(tuán)[BostonPopOrchestra]大學(xué)…Formalorganizationsfulfillanenormousvarietyofpersonalandsocialneedsandshapethelivesofeveryoneofus.Formalorganizationshaveesuchadominantsocialforcethatwemustcreateorganizationstosuperviseotherorganizations[證監(jiān)會(huì)/保監(jiān)會(huì)/銀監(jiān)會(huì)/電監(jiān)會(huì)……]正式組織中的先賦地位特征Ely[1995]：女律師占據(jù)重要職位比例，將會(huì)影響不同律師事務(wù)所內(nèi)女性律師的自我形象和她們對(duì)職業(yè)成功的預(yù)期科層制及其核心特征Abureaucracyisacomponentofformalorganizationthatusesrulesandhierarchicalrankingtoachieveefficiency.Rowsofdesksstaffedbyseeminglyfacelesspeople[去人格化]Endlesslinesandforms[文牘主義]Impossiblycomplexlanguage[專業(yè)霸權(quán)]Frustratingencounterswithredtape[監(jiān)控和紀(jì)律]MaxWeber[1922]：關(guān)于科層制的理想型Divisionoflabor[勞動(dòng)分工]:specialexpertsperformspecialtasks隱含問題：異化[alienation]/受訓(xùn)的無能[trainedincapacity]Hierarchyofauthority[權(quán)威等級(jí)]:eachpositionissupervisedbyahigherauthority隱含問題：底層無權(quán)[powerlessnessoftherank-and-file]/掩蓋組織失誤[concealmentoforganizationalmistakes]Writtenrulesandregulations[成文規(guī)則]:offeremployeesclearstandardsforanadequateorexceptionalperformance隱含問題：阻礙創(chuàng)新[hinderedcreativity]/目標(biāo)替代[goaldisplacement]Impersonality[去人格化]:performdutieswithoutpersonalfeelings隱含問題：異化[alienation]/降低忠誠度[discourageloyaltytocompany]Employmentbasedontechnicalqualifications[技術(shù)理性]:againstfarvoritismandnepotism隱含問題：PeterPrinciple[everyemployeewithinahierarchytendstorisetohisorherlevelofpetence]科層化[Bureaucratizationasaprocess]Sociologistsusethetermbureaucratizationtorefertotheprocessbywhichagroup,organization,orsocialmovementesincreasinglybureaucratic.科層化的具體例子管轄權(quán)混亂：大型組織中[政府機(jī)構(gòu)或商業(yè)機(jī)構(gòu)]，你需要跑遍10—12個(gè)辦公室，才會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)，到底你的事該歸誰管過度程式化：美國加州的一家連鎖家政公司規(guī)定，清潔衛(wèi)生間一共有22個(gè)步驟，全部寫在工作手冊(cè)上NASA的官僚組織文化：在成本考慮和進(jìn)度壓力這兩重組織優(yōu)先性下，NASA的內(nèi)部組織文化并不鼓勵(lì)下屬部門表達(dá)對(duì)安全風(fēng)險(xiǎn)的顧慮寡頭統(tǒng)治的鐵律[Ironlawofoligarchy]RobertMichels[1915]：關(guān)于社會(huì)黨和工會(huì)的研究Thisconceptdescribeshowevenademocraticorganizationwilleventuallydevelopintoabureaucracyruledbyafew.Peoplewhoachieveleadershiprolesusuallyhavetheskills,knowledge,orcharismaticappealtodirect,ifnotcontrol,others.Therankandfileinanorganizationorasocialmovementlooktoleadersfordirectionandtherebyreinforcetheprocessofrulebyafew.Inaddition,membersofanoligarchyarestronglymotivatedtomaintaintheirleadershiproles,privileges,andpower.當(dāng)代歐美各國的工會(huì)，都帶有明顯的寡頭統(tǒng)治[或少數(shù)人治理]的特征科層制和組織文化科層制作為一種社會(huì)結(jié)構(gòu)，如何影響在其中工作的普通人科學(xué)管理學(xué)派[ScientificManagementApproach]Workersaremotivatedalmostentirelybyeconomicrewards.Onlyphysicalconstraintslimitworker’sproductivity.Workersarethenequivalenttomachines.Managementattemptstoachievemaximumworkefficiencythroughscientificplanning,establishedperformancestandards,andcarefulsupervision.人際關(guān)系學(xué)派[HumanRelationsApproach]Emphasizetheroleofpeople,communication,andparticipationwithinabureaucracy.Planningfocusedonworker’sfeelings,frustrations,andemotionalneedforjobsatisfactions.Stressthelessformalaspectsoforganizationallife:informalgroupsandsocialnetworkswithinorganizationsdeveloppartlyasaresultofpeople’sabilitytocreatemoredirectformsofcommunicationundertheformalstructure.志愿組織Voluntaryassociationsareorganizationsestablishedonthebasisofcommoninterests,whosemembersvolunteerorevenpaytoparticipate.志愿組織構(gòu)成了公益慈善事業(yè)的主體。AACFYDYMCAPoliticalpartyandlaborunionOccupationalsocietiesMutualaidorganizations…關(guān)于志愿組織的其他社會(huì)學(xué)評(píng)論性別分離[segregationbygender]：一半以上志愿組織由女性組成一人擁有多個(gè)志愿組織身份[cross-cuttingsolidarity]對(duì)女性志愿工作的承認(rèn)具有重要社會(huì)意義[therecognitionofwomen’sunpaidwork]組織變遷來自其他社會(huì)機(jī)構(gòu)[尤其是政府]的變遷緣由Governments’regulatorystatutes,licensingprocedures,taxlaws,andtheircontractingforgoodsandservices如政府關(guān)于殘疾人就業(yè)的新法案很可能影響到組織的雇傭政策來自組織內(nèi)部的目標(biāo)變遷AchurchstartsabasketballleagueAnoilcompanypurchasesamoviestudioAtobaccofirmbeginstomanufactureballpointpen組織目標(biāo)多元化[GoalMultiplication]Ittakesplacewhenanorganizationexpandsitspurposes,generallyasaresultofchangingsocialoreconomicconditionsthatthreatentheorganization’ssurvival.組織目標(biāo)繼替[GoalSuccession]Theprocessthroughwhichanorganizationidentifiesanentirelynewobjectivebecauseitstraditionalgoalshavebeenrealizedordenied.組織目標(biāo)多元化：YMCA的例子1850s:providingBiblestudyandtentrevivalmeetings1900s:offeringgymnasiumfacilitiesandresidencequarters1960s:involvinginprovidingemploymenttrainingandjuveniledelinquencyprograms[andthusreceivingsubstantialfundingfromthefederalgovernment,adramaticchangeforanorganizationwhoseeshadpreviouslycomesolelyfrommembershipfeesandcharitablecontributions]Currently:itsrangeofactivitiesincludessocialserviceprogramsforthedisabled,daycarecenters,fitnessclassesforofficeworkers,residencedormitoriesforcollegestudentsandsingleadults,‘learningforliving’classesforadults,andseniorcitizens’facilities.V技術(shù)對(duì)工作場(chǎng)所的影響在家辦公[muting]工作場(chǎng)所中的電子通訊技術(shù)[electroniccommunicationsatworkplace]在家辦公mutersareemployeeswhoworkfull-timeorpart-timeathomeratherthaninanoutsideoffice,andwhoarelinkedtotheirsupervisorsandcolleaguesthroughcomputerterminals,phones,andfaxmachines.從社會(huì)學(xué)視角看‘在家辦公’負(fù)面效應(yīng)：sinceworkplaceisama