TheDiversityofCivilizationandtheFutureoftheWorld

QianChengdan,PekingUniversity

Inthelonghistoryofabout4millionyearsofhumanrace,thehistoryofcivilizationcontributesonlyaboutonethousandth.Emergenceofcivilizationdependsonmanypreliminaryconditions,oneofwhichwasthegrowthofinteractionamongprimitivehumancommunitiessuchastribes,clansandethnic/familygroups.Inthecourseofinteractionpoliticalinstitutionswereformulatedandstateasthematureformofwhichwasbroughtforthwhensocietybrokethroughtheshellofkinship.Onephenomenonisworthnoticing:ancientcivilizationsallbeganbywater--ontheNile,theYellowRiver,theIndusRiverandinTigris-Euphratesvalleyandetc.Theexplanationforthisisthatapartfromtheneedsofirrigationanddaily-life,watermeantconvenientinteractionwithothercommunities,providingancientpeoplewithtransportnetworkthroughwhichhumanactivitieswerequicklycommunicated,bringingaboutexchangeofgoodsandtechnologicalskills,encouragingmilitaryadventureandinvasionsandimplementingculturalpermeationinareciprocalway.Interactionhelpedpeopletochangewhenfacingoutsidechallenges,andearlycivilizationswerenourishedbyconsistentinteractionandself-reformationinthelongprocessofhumanhistory.Inthissensewesay:waterproducescivilization.Laotse,theancientChinesephilosopher,praisedtheimportanceofwater:"waterbenefitseverythingitflowspast"!

ThefirstEuropeancivilizationwasalsoproducedbywater,butnotariverbutthesea.Helleniccivilizationwascharacterizedbyitsautonomouslyindependentpolityofpoleis--thecity-states.Thoughinothercivilizedareasofancienttimecity-stateswerealsowitnessed,forexample,inthelowerreachofMesopotamia,itwasinancientGreecethatthisformofpoliticalinstitutionwasthemosttypical,preservedforthelongesttimeandleftdeepestimpactsonhistorybothpositiveandnegative.TheHellenicWorldneveramalgamatedintoaregionalunit,togainitsunification.ThishelpstoexplainwhytheHellenicWorldwasalwaysinturbulencewithendlessfightingamongcity-states---therewerehundredsinnumber.TheHelleniccivilization,theearliestEuropeancivilization,wasthussubstantiallyuniqueamongancientcivilizationsbecauseinotherareasasinPersia,Egypt,MesopotamiaandevenChinaextensiveandcentralizedstatesorempireswereformulatedwhenregionalandareainteractionswereincreased.ConsequentlytheHelleniccivilization,magnificentasitwas,vanishedinthemistofhistoryjustlikeashooting-starflyingoverthedarksky.

ModernpeopletendtosaytheHelleniccivilizationisofuniversalvalue,butinfactitwasonlyunique.

TheHelleniccivilizationwasuniquewithanotherlegacy,thedemocraticpoliticsofcity-states--anotherclaimforuniversalvalue.Iamnotdiscussingwhetherornottherearereallyuniversalvalues;Ionlypointoutthefollowingfact:amongthehundredsofHelleniccity-states,theAtheniandemocracyofPericlesAgewastypicallyunique,because,inthehundredsofyearsofAthenshistorythisstyleofpoliticsonlyexistedforabout80yearswhileinotherpoleisthereweredifferentsystemssuchasthatofSparta.AfterthePeloponnesianWarpeopleattributedAthens,failuretoitsdemocracy,declaringthatitwasthesplitofpowerthatbroughtaboutitsdefeat.Thucydides,theGreekhistorianandAthenianpatriotwhowroteTheHistoryofthePeloponnesianWar,analyzedAthens,defeatinthisdeclaration.Aristotle,themostinfluentialphilosopherofancientGreece,madeanegativejudgmentoncity-statedemocracyandhisjudgmentinfluencedEuropeanpoliticalthinkingforabouttwothousandyears.Anotherpointtobementionedisthat:theRomans,asavowedsuccessorsofHelleniccivilization,steeredawayfromthepoleispoliticsofGreeceinthefollowingtwofields,(1)Romebeganwithacity-stateofHellenicstylebutgrewintoanextraordinarilyextensiveempirewithcentralizedpowerandauthority;(2)TheRomanstateexperimentedalmostallpoliticalsystemsthathumansocietyhaseverexperiencedbutonlynotthatsystemcalleddemocracy.Inthisway,bydeliberatelymovingapartfromtheHellenicmodel,theRomanstatewasmoreuniversalthanthatofGreece.

Imentionalltheabovefactsonlytoremindthatfromtheverystartofhumancivilizationsdiversityprevailedeverywhere.Eachcivilizationhaditspeculiartimeandspacebackground.ItiswidelyacknowledgedthatMesopotamiawasthepioneerofhumancivilizationbecausetheearliestwrittenlanguage,religiousbelief,socialclassification,stateinstitutionsandothersseemedalltobetracedtothisarea.Powerfullocalstatesappearedanddisappearedoneafteranother,amongwhichAkkad,Babylonia,Assyriaandetc.werewellknown.ButneitherpoleisoftheHellenicstylenorextensiveempiresintheRomanorPersianlikeswereorganized.Ethnicgroupscameandleft,leavingMesopotamiaabattlegroundwithnohopeofunification.TheCrescentregionwasfertile,butitspoliticshadnofuture.ItwasnotuntiltheriseofIslamthattheareaatlastbecameaneconomic,politicalandculturalcenterofworld-widesignificance.

Egypthadadifferentstory.UpperEgyptandLowerEgyptwereunifiedintoacentralizedstatearound3,000BC,andthenruledbyasovereignkingthePharaoh.

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WhentheHomericcivilizationinEuropefirstcametotheGreekpeninsulartheruleofPharaohhadlastedforabout2,000yearsinEgypt.IfwerealizethatAnnoDominiareonlyabout2,000yearssofar(andtheUnitedStateshasahistoryofabout200yearsonly),itiseasytounderstandwhatavitalitytheancientEgyptiancivilizationmusthave.ButitwasdestroyedbytheRomans.ThereciprocalconsequenceoftheconquestwasthatRomeitselfbeganitstransformationfromarepublictoanempire.WhetherornotthetransformationmeantachangeoftheancientHellenic/Romaniccivilization,ithasalwayspuzzledadvocatorsoftheUniversalisttheoryofthemoderntimefor,inthelogicofUniversalism,empirebetrayedtheprincipleofrepublicandpulledhistorybackfromahigherleveltoalowerlevel.

InIndiaweseeanotherpicture.Indiancivilizationwascharacterizedbyprolongedpoliticalfragmentationtwistedwithunbelievablesocialstability.About3,500yearsagotheAryansenteredtheHinduValley,diminishedtheindigenouscivilizationsbeforethemandbroughtaboutanewsystemofsocialclassificationcalledCaste,which,eversincethattime,wasthefeatureofIndiancivilization.InthelonghistoryofIndiaweseenumerouslocalmonarchiescontestingeachotherwithendlesswarsandfighting,butunderthestrictCastesystemthesocialstabilitywasmaintainedsowellthattimeseemedstoppedforever.ThereemergedseveralpowerfuldynastiesinIndianhistorybutallexistedbriefly.Onlyinthe18thcenturywhentheBritishinvadersmadeuseofthesplitsituationofthesub-continentstartedtheprocessofIndiaunificationundertheBritishcolonialsovereignty.

Persiapresentedanothertypeofancientcivilization.WhendescribingthecharacteristicsofancientPersiaMohammadRezaShahPahlaviusedtosaythatthePersianswerethefirstintheworldtoknowhowtoestablishandmanageanextensiveempire.Hewasright;theysetupmodelsforotherempires.ButPersiawasdefeatedbyHellenicforcesinthePersianWars.TheHellenicvictorscontributedtheirvictoriestofreedomtheyenjoyedbecausetheysawPersiaasaslaverycountry(forsuretheyforgottheirownsystemofslave-owning);butinturn,theyweredefeatedbytheMacedonianswhointheireyeswerebarbariansandun-ree.ThemostunbelievablefactisthatimmediatelyaftertheGreekswereconqueredbytheMacedonianstheyfollowedAlexandertheGreat,theMacedonianstrongman,inhisconquestoftheEastandestablishedaHellenisticworldinwhichtheGreeksweretyrannicalrulersandtheconqueredwereenslavedsubjectswithnobitoffreedom.ItwasatreacheroushistorybutagainbetrayedtheUniversalisttheory.Civilizationsdonottreaduponacommontracefixedbyuniversalvalues,asstronglyindicatedbytheUniversalists.

Tomanypeople,ancientChinaisthemostdifficulttobeunderstood.ArcheologicalstudieshaveindicatedthatChinesecivilizationhasmorethanoneoriginoftheYellowRiverValley.About5,000yearsagointheextensiveareafromtheLoessPlateautothecoastoftheEastChineseSeathereformedmanyprimitivepoliticalentities—earlychiefdomsorbigtriballeagues.About4,000yearsagoXiaKingdombecamearegionalstateoutofthesechiefdomswhichwasthefirstdynastyinChinesehistoryaccordingtolegend.Butwritteninscriptionsof3,500yearsagoprovedtheundoubtedexistenceoftheShangEmpireandarecordedhistorywouldneverceaseagain.WhenearlyrulersofZhouDynasty,whichbeganinthe11thcenturyBC,constitutedafiefsystemtosystemizeland-holdingandsocialhierarchyEuropewasatthedoorofHomericAge.AsimilarsystemwaslaterforgedbytheFrankishrulersinabout7thcenturyADafterthedissolutionofthewestRomanEmpire,asystemidentifiedbylaterhistoriansasfeudalsystem.WhenIgivelecturesmystudentswouldalwaysaskme:“isthefiefsystemoftheZhouthesameasthefeudalsysteminEurope?”Iwouldanswer:thequestionshouldbe“isthefeudalsysteminEuropethesameasthefiefsystemoftheZhou?”Anyway,Zhou,ssystemwasabout2,000yearsearlierthanthefeudalsysteminEurope.Zhou,spractice,asitshouldbe,causedpoliticalchaosandsocialdisintegrationinChinaforabout500years,justasthefeudalsystemcausedhundredsofyears,socialdisorderinEurope.ThisnegativeexperienceofancienttimeleftanunforgettablelessontoChinesenation.SincethenpoliticalunificationbecamethemostcherishedfeatureofChinesecivilization.IfwelookatallcivilizationswhichexistedinancienttimestheChinesecivilizationistheonlyonestillexisting.Thereasonforthatis:politicalunificationguaranteeditscontinuance.

Confucius,doctrinewasanotherguaranteeforitscontinuance,whichisanideologicalguarantee.AsamanoftheAxialAgehelivedatatimewhenpoliticalturmoilandsocialfragmentationprevailedinChina.Withanambitiontofinishturbulenceonceforallheworkedoutanideologicalframeworkwhichembracedeverythinginharmonyincludinghumanandthenature.Histheorypraisespeace,opposeswar,heightensupmoralityandrebukesselfishness.HisdoctrineisacceptedbyChinesenationasfundamentalvaluesofChinesecivilizationandembeddedfirmlyinthespiritualworldofChinesepeople.

Tomethereshouldbetwopillarsforanyofthecivilizationstobeenduringlong:apoliticalpillarstateandaspiritualpillarideology.TheAxialAgewasgreatbecauseitgeneratedallmain-streamideologiesforalmostallmain-streamcivilizationsoftheancientworld.Laterevolutionofhumancivilization,inmyview,wasonlytransitionorcontinuationoftheideologicalproductsoftheAxialAge.SagesoftheAgesuchasConfucius,Sakyamuni,Aristotle,Judaicprophetsandothersweregreatbecausetheylaidtheideologicalfoundationforvariouscivilizationswithrespectivereligionsordoctrines.ButthepeculiarityofChinesecivilizationlaywiththefactthatConfUcius,doctrine(thespiritualpillar)wassatisfactorilyinlaidwiththeimperialstatestructure(thepoliticalpillar)whiletheotherancientcivilizationslackedtheinlay.ThroughoutChinesehistoryeconomicprosperitywascloselylinkedwithsocialstabilitybecausewhenevertherewassocialstabilitytherewaseconomicprosperityandwhenevertherewasturbulenceandturmoiltheremustbesufferingsanddisastersforcommonpopulace.Itiswiththissocio-economicfeaturethatweunderstandwhyConfucianismhasbeenkeptcorevalueforChinesecivilization.

ComparedwiththehighcombinationofspiritualideologyandpoliticalframeworkinChinesecivilization,west-Europeancountrieswerehinderedbylackofcoordinationbetweenthetwoforces.TheRomanEmpirewaspowerfulbuttherewasnounifiedideology.Fromthe3rdcenturyBCtothe3rdcenturyADChina,sHanDynastyandtheRomanstatewerethetwosuperpowersoftheworld.Bothofthem,withhighlydevelopedeconomyanddelicatelyorganizedsocialnetworks,demonstratedthehighestcivilizationalachievementsuptotime.Butthe4thcenturywitnessedaturningpointbecausebothofthemweredraggedintochaosbywavesof“barbarian”invasions.Yet,inthe7thcentury,ChinawentuptoanewheightofcivilizationoftheTangDynastywhileataboutthesametimeWestEuropeentereditsfeudalsystemwhichwascharacterizedbyseparationofspiritualandpoliticalpowersasindicatedinthemotto“theGodandCaesarhavetheirownworks”.Thoughweknowthat“theDarkAge”ofthemedievaltimeswasnotsodarkbecauseitwasalwayschangingandfullofvigor,yet,itwasstillasetbackcomparedwithothercivilizationsofthetime.

Thewesterncivilizationsincethenfellbehindwhileeasterncivilizations一forexampleinIndia,Arabia,TurkeyandByzantiumreachedtheirsummitsoneafteranother.Chinawasoutstandingamongthem.AccordingtotheestimationoftheCaliforniaSchoolChina,sGDPwasalwaysrankednumberoneoftheworldforabout1000yearsuptothe18thcentury.That1000-yearwastheeraof“advancedEastandleg-behindedWest”,anerawithworldstrengthlaidintheEast.

WhyforsolongwastheWestfallenbehind?Theanswerissimple:itwasthefeudalsystemthatmadeEuropefragmentedandde-centralized,andgeneratedendlesschaos.AsImentionedearlier,ChinawastrappedinsimilarsituationduringtheZhouDynasty,theresultofwhichwas500year,sturbulencefromtheSpringandAutumnperiodtotheWarringStates.Qinshihuang,thefirstemperorinChinesehistory,unifiedChinainthe3rdcenturyBCandfromthattimeonunificationbecameanoutstandingfeatureofChinesehistory.Unificationensuredlong-termstabilityandprosperity,whichinturnenhancedChina,sancientachievementsfromonepeaktoanother.ComparedwithChineseexperienceswesterncountriesmustgetoutofmedievalfragmentationbycoordinatingthetwopillarstogether.Thistimetheycreatedanewformofpolity,thenation-state,whichwasdifferentfromallconventionalstateformsinthesensethatitspoliticalbasiswasnationandideologicalfoundationwasnationalidentity.Supportedbythesetwopillarswesterncountriesbegantheirlongprocessesofrise.

Onefactisworthnoticing:almostallnation-statesinEuropestartedwithabsolutemonarchywhichplayedtherolesoflocomotivetodrawEuropeoutofmedievalismandadhesivetopullthenationtogether.Allwesterncountriesexperiencedabsolutemonarchythoughnotallpeoplewanttorememberit.Butabsolutemonarchywasauniversalphenomenonofallcountriesforitledthemtoformnation-states.Nomatterhowpeoplethinkofit,itisthereintheirhistory.ImentionabsolutemonarchyinEuropeonlytoremindthatcivilizationsarealwaysdiverse;therecanbenofixedvaluestobeutilized.Absolutemonarchywastheuniversalvalueorientationofthetime,withoutwhichthereshouldhavebeennoriseoftheWest.

Aroundtheyearof1500worldhistoryenteredanewagewhichwasmarkedbytheriseoftheWest.Theoldpatternofworldpowerstructure,an“advancedEast”anda“backwardWest”,wasreversed.AnewcivilizationaroseintheWestwithexpansionofindividualism,promotionofcommerce,prosperityofmarketsandpriorityofindustry.Capitalismgrewrapidlyandstormedthewholeworldwithitsendlessappetiteforwealthandprofits.AnewideologyprevailedintheWest,ofwhichcapitalwasthecoreandindustryandbusinesswereinstruments.WorshipingGodgaveawaytoworshipinggoldwhilescienceandtechnologywereusefultomakemoney.Thewesternworldbecametheleadingengineofworldeconomy.Euro-centralismandUniversalismstartedwithit.ThetrueimplicationunderliningUniversalismistoequalizetheWestwiththeworld,andtouniversalizewesternvaluetohumanvalues.Inthatcasediversityofcivilizationisnolongerthere.Hegelannouncedhisbeliefinauniversalistictheoryofhistory:heclaimedthattheSunofcivilizationroseintheEastandfellintheWest,butitwasatthisjuncturethattheinnersunofself-consciousness,emittingahigherradiance,madeitsfurtherascent!

WesternpowersbegantheirstrifeforcolonieswiththestartofGrandNavigation.Capitalism,withthehelpofcommerceandindustry,swepteverywhereandeverywherehadnodefense.Bytheendofthe19thcenturytheworldhadbeenpartitionedbywesterncolonialismandawesternhegemonywasconsolidated.Diversityofcivilization,whichwasanoverwhelmingphenomenoneversinceancientcivilizationscameintobeing,seemedtocometoanend.Avoice,whichsorted“good”from“bad”civilizations,cametotheeartoconfirmthesuperiorityofthewesterncivilizationanddenounceallothercivilizationsasinferiorandborntobe“bad”.Aunilateraltheoryofcivilizationwasthusformulatedwhichthreatenedthetrueexistenceofhumancivilization.

Sofarworldcivilizationshadbeenco-existingandbasicallyequal.Therewerenohigherrankingorlowerranking.Butwhentheworldwasmoreandmoreoverwhelmedbywesterncapitalismthewesternhegemonyroseup.MinorcivilizationssuchasinSouthAmericaandinWestAfricawereextinguishedbycolonialexpansionandthoseregions,havingnourishedthemostancientcivilizationsasinIndia,China,WestAsiaandNorthAfrica,fellundertheswayofwesternhegemony.Balanceandequalityweresmashed.Manycivilizationsseemedcondemned.

Butitwasatthisjuncturethataturningpointcamein.ArnoldToynbee,thedistinguishedBritishhistorian,arguedforachallenge-responsemechanismthatdeterminesthelifeanddeathofcivilizations.Idonotintendtodiscussabouthisargumentherebutthefactisthatrightatthispointwherewesternhegemonyreacheditspeakandmanyoftherestcivilizationswerefacingtheirfateaworld-widemovementmadeitsstart--amovementcalledmodernizationthatbegantherevivalofcivilizations.

AsamatteroffactmodernizationstartedinwestEurope;nation-statewasthelaunchingstand.Accordingtoclassicaltheoryofmodernizationitsprocesscoversallaspectsofsociety.HistoricaleventsdescribedintextbookssuchasRenaissance,Reformation,theGrandNavigation,theIndustrialRevolution,scienceandtechnologyimprovements,politicaltransition,socialchangesandetc.areallaspectsofmodernization.Afterhundredsofyearstransformationallwesterncountriesaremodernizednowbutdiversityisnotceased.Modernizationdidnotkilldiversityofcivilizationevenamongwesterncountriesbutonthecontraryweseeitscontinuance:

First,therearedifferentapproaches.Forexample,BritainfollowedanevolutionarywaywithpeacefulsolutionwhileFranceranthrougharevolutionistpathuntilviolenceandbloodfedupthenation.Germany,initsneighbours,eyes,was“eccentric”inpursuingnationalunificationwhiletheUnitedStates,formerBritishcoloniesasitwas,hadtofightforindependencefirstandthenenteritsownprocessofmodernization.Astoeconomicdevelopments,BritainworshippedLaissez-faire;Francemovedabitfromit.Germanywasagain“eccentric”foritsrapidgrowthundercoercivegovernmentalmaneuver.TheUnitedStates,startedwithLaissez-fairefollowingtheBritishmodel,settheexampleoflarge-scalestateinterferenceinthe20thcenturytomodifythefreemarketeconomy.

Second,therearedifferentsystems.Takepoliticalsystemstospeakof:Britainisuniquewithamonarchy,itspeople,sloveformonarchevenmoreunique.Franceisarepublic,comparedbytheUnitedStateswithafederalstructure.ParliamentarysysteminUKisobviouslydifferentfromthepresidentialsysteminUSwhilethe“first-past-the-post”electioninBritainisinsharpcontrastwiththeAmerican“electoralcollege”votesthoughbothofthemleaveaholefordeviatingfromthefundamentalprincipalofdemocracywithwhichtheminorityisrequiredtofollowthemajority.Astotheseparationofpowers--ofexecutive,legislativeandjudicialinstitutions,itisonlyintheUnitedStates,schemethattheseparationidealisreallyoperated.So,ifanyoneclaimsthattheUSschemeisuniversallyfittingtoeverywhereitsoundsliketoclaimthatthePericleanAthenswasauniversalfittingtothewholeHellenicWorld.

Socialandeconomicsystemsareevenmoredistinctive.Forexample,Europeancountries,especiallyinNorthEurope,arefondofsocialwelfarewhiletheUnitedStatesdismissestheideaasabedforidlenesssowhenPresidentObamatriedtopeddlehisMedicareReformhewasrepudiatedasa“socialist”.Asforwhatarolethegovernmentshouldplayinanation,seconomyeachcountryhasitsownperspective.ThishelpstoexplainwhyMaynardKeyneswasaproductofwelfare-inclinedBritainandMiltonFriedmanwascreatedbytheindividualisticUnitedStates.

Thelastbutnottheleast,therearealwayschangesinwesterncountries,systemsandapproaches.Taketheseforexample:BritainfromLaissez-airetowelfare-state,Francefromrevolutionarytoevolutionaryitineraries,USsubstitutionofracialdiscriminationbyracialequality(atleastinlaw),alltodisplaythateveninasamecountryitisnormalforonesystemtobetransformedintoanotherandalsothatcivilizationshavemanyfaces.

Ifwelookattheprocessesofmodernizationinnon-westernareasweseemorediversitiesfromcountrytocountry.WehaveLatin-Americanmodels,wehaveEast-Asianmodels,wehaveArabianmodels,wehaveIranianmodel,SouthAfricanmodel,SovietmodelandofcauseChinesemodelaswell.Weknowtheseleadersandtheseevents:MohandasGandhiandhisSatyagraha,MustafaKemalandtheTurkishRevolution,JamalNasserandtheArabianSocialism,NelsonMandelaandhispeacefulantagonismagainstapartheid Alltheleadersplayedincomparably

importantrolesintheirowncountriesthatmademodernizationineachcountryunique.Buteachcountry,ssuccesscannotbecopiedinothercountriesbecauseeverycountryisuniqueinitssocialandpoliticalbackground.ItisnotimaginablethatGandhi,sstrategycouldworkinAlgeriawhenFrenchcolonialismrepressedthecountry,northatMandela,sapproachcouldsaveTurkeywhenforeigntroopswereoccupyingit.NapoleonBonapartecouldnotbeproducedinAmericanRevolution,justastheIndianCongressPartywouldnotsurviveinaEgyptiansurrounding.Theexport-orientatedandimport-substitutionarymodelscarriedalternativelybymilitaryandcivilbureaucracyinLatin-AmericacouldnotbeduplicatedinSingapore,soLeeKuanYewwassculpturedthere.WhencompetitivepartyelectionsareimposedonAfricansocietieswheretribaltraditionisstrongenoughconfrontationamongtribeswillneverstop.When“ArabianSpring”isturnedto“Arabianwinter”andbloodshedgoeseverywhereonecannotbutkeeptheselessonsdeepinmindsothatthissadmistakeneverbemade!

InIndiacastessystemisinlaidinmodernpartyelectionstocombinetraditionwithmodernity;inJapanonlytheLiberalDemocraticPartydominatesandthepoliticalstructureisahereditaryonepassedfromgenerationtogeneration.China,ssocialistmarketeconomyissouniquetomakethewholeworldpuzzledaboutit;ontheotherhandthemarketeconomyintheUnitedStateshasnoreplicationbecauseitisbasedondollardominationovertheworld.Withalltheseexampleswecansaythatdiversitymeanssuccess.Tosearchforsuitableapproachineachcountry,smodernizationisnodoubtthefundamentalcharacteristicofmoderncivilizations.

ButUniversalistshaveotherclaims.Tothemunilateralismistheonlythingtheypreparetoaccept.FrancisFukuyamaproclaimsanendofhistory:tohimhistoryhascometotheend.ButHegelhadmadethesimilarproclamationlongbeforehimthoughtheydifferfromeachotherinwheretheendlies.ToHegelFriedrichIl'sPrussiawastheendbutFukuyamabelievesthattheendlieswiththeUnitedStates.

Yet,whentheUnitedStatesitselfisstillchangingforwardisitpossi