Theconservationmovement

Duringtheearly1900's,conservationbegantodevelopasanationalmovementintheUnitedStates.Itsdominantthemewasthewiseuseofnaturalresources,includingplantsandanimals,forhumanbenefit.Thefederalgovernmenttookmanystepstopreservetheseresources,andconservationistssoughttoavoidwastefulharvestatallcost.Throughoutthisperiod,however,peopleconsideredplantsandanimalsprimarilyasinstrumentstoincreasehumanwelfare,ratherthanasindependentspecieswiththeirowninherentrights.

CongresspassedaconservationlawcalledtheLaceyBirdandGameActof1900.Theact,namedforitssponsor,RepresentativeJohnF.LaceyofIowa,madeitafederalcrimetotransportillegallykilledanimalsacrossstateborders.Italsosetcontrolsonthetradeinbirdfeathers,theimportationofanimals,andthecommercialkillingofgame.

Roosevelt'scontributions

PresidentTheodoreRooseveltmademanyimportantcontributionstotheconservationmovement.In1903,heestablishedthefirstfederalwildliferefugeatPelicanIsland,Florida.AttheurgingofGiffordPinchot,theheadofthe.ForestService,andotherconservationleaders,Rooseveltaddedmorethan140millionacres(57millionhectares)tothenation'sforestreserves.

In1908,PresidentRooseveltbroughttogethergovernors,federalofficials,scientists,businessexecutives,andconservationleadersforaWhiteHouseconferencetoadoptnationalpoliciesfortheuseofnaturalresources.Theconferenceapprovedtheprincipleofmultipleuseinthemanagementofnationalforestsandparks.Theprincipleofmultipleuseprovidedthatpubliclandsbemanagedtoservemanybenefits.Itthusprotectedtheselandsfrombeingusedsolelyorprimarilyforcommercialdevelopment.

The1908conferencehadfar-reachingeffects.Withinafewyears,41governorsestablishedconservationcommissionsintheirstates.TheNationalConservationCommissionwasformed,andGiffordPinchotbecameitschairman.Thecommissionmadethefirstinventoryofthenation'snaturalresources.Basedonthecommission'srecommendations,PresidentRooseveltlatersetasidesomepubliclandsasnaturalresourcereservestobeusedforscientificstudies.In1911,CongresspassedtheWeeksAct,namesforitssponsor,RepresentativeJohnW.WeeksofMassachusetts.TheWeeksActformallyestablishedthepolicyofmultipleuseinthemanagementofnationalforestsandotherpubliclands.

Conservationprojectsinthe1930's

ManyconservationprojectswerebegunduringtheGreatDepressionofthe1930's,partlytoprovidejobsfortheunemployed.In1933,PresidentFranklinRooseveltformedtheCivilianConservationCorps(CCC).WorkersintheCCCplantedtrees,foughtforestfires,madepathsinnationalforestsandparks,andbuiltdamstocontrolfloods.Alsoin1933,CongressestablishedtheTennesseeValleyAuthority(TVA)toconservetheresourcesoftheTennesseeValley.Theregionsufferedfromserioussoilerosionandfromflooding.TheTVAplantedtreestorestoretheregion'sforests.Itbuiltseverallargedamstocontrolfloodingandtoprovidecheapelectricpowertoruralareas.

ThetragedyoftheDustBowlintheearly1930'sdramatizedtheneedforsoilconservationintheUnitedStates.TheDustBowlwasthenamegiventopartsoftheGreatPlainswherewindstormscarriedawaythetopsoil.Thelandhadbeendamagedbyaseveredroughtandbypoorfarmingandranchingpractices.TheDustBowlcoveredabout50millionacres(20millionhectares).Manyfarmfamiliessufferedgreathardshipsandhadtoleavethearea.In1935,PresidentFranklinRooseveltestablishedtheSoilConservationServicetopromotesoilconservationpracticesamongfarmersandranchers.

In1937,CongresspassedtheFederalAidinWildlifeRestorationAct,whichleviedafederaltaxonsportingarmsandammunition.Thetaxmoneyisdistributedtothestatesforuseinwildlifemanagementandresearch.

AldoLeopold,anAmericannaturalist,wasoneofthemostinfluentialleadersintheconservationmovementduringthemid-1900's.HewroteGameManagement(1933),thefirsttextbookonwildlifemanagement.Leopoldpromotedtheactivemanagementofwildlife.

Renewedinterestinconservation

The1960'sand1970'sbroughtrenewedinterestinconservation.Scientificdiscoveriesaboutvariousformsofpollutionhadamajorimpactontheconservationmovementduringthe1960'sand1970's.RachelCarson,amarinebiologist,wroteaboutthedestructiveeffectsofDDTandotherpesticidesinherbookSilentSpring(1962).Shepointedoutthatpesticidespoisonthefoodsupplyofwildanimalsandcouldalsocontaminatethefoodsupplyofhumanbeings.Beginningin1972,DDThasbeengraduallyphasedout.

PublicityaboutDDTandotherpollutantsledtoincreasedpublicconcernaboutenvironmentalhealth.Membershipinconservationorganizationsrose,andpeopleurgedCongresstopasslawstoprotectthehealthoftheenvironment.

CongresspassedtheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyActin1969.TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyActrequiresthatanenvironmentalassessmentbepreparedforallfederallyfundedconstructionprojectsorotheractivitiesthatmightaffecttheenvironment.

Theactalsorequirespreparationofanenvironmentalimpactstatementifexpertsreviewtheassessmentandfindtheprojectoractivitytohaveenvironmentalsignificance.Environmentalimpactstatementsarereportsthatdescribehowproposedhighways,dams,powerplants,orotherconstructionprojectswouldaffecttheenvironment.Environmentalimpactstatementscanbeusedincourttochallengeprojectsthatmaybeenvironmentallyharmful.Insomecases,acourtmayorderthatprojectsbestoppedorredesignedtominimizeenvironmentaldamage.

Conservationeffortsinthe1970's

In1970,theEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)wasestablished.TheEPAsetsandenforcespollutioncontrolstandardsandassistsstateandlocalgovernmentsinpollutioncontrol.

In1973,CongresspassedtheEndangeredSpeciesAct,whichprovidedmorecomprehensiveprotectionforthreatenedandendangeredspeciesofwildlifethanearlierlawshad.Theactprohibitsfederalprojectsthatwoulddestroythehabitatofanendangeredspecies.In1978,Congressamendedtheacttoallowexemptionofcertainprojectsthatservethebestinterestsofaregionorofthenation.In1995,theSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStatesruledthatdeliberatedestructionofhabitatofanendangeredspeciesisalsoprohibitedonprivateproperty.

Duringthe1970's,theUnitedStatesexperiencedperiodicfuelshortages,whichledtohigherpricesforgasolineandhomeheatingfuel.Thefuelshortageshelpeddramatizetheneedforenergyconservation.In1977,CongresscreatedtheDepartmentofEnergy,whichwasgivenresponsibilitytodevelopandpromotenewsourcesofenergyandwaystosaveexistingsupplies.

Oneprojectcalledfortheproductionofsyntheticfuels,orfuelsthatcanbesubstitutedforcrudeoilandnaturalgas.Syntheticfuels,alsocalledsynfuels,aregasesorliquidsproducedfromcoal,oilshale(arockthatyieldsoilwhenheated),bituminoussands(sandsthatalsocontainasubstancefromwhichoilcanbeobtained),andbiomass(organicmatter,suchaswood,garbage,andanimalmanure).Synfuelsareexpensivetomakeandnotwidelyused.Butifoilpricesrisegreatly,synfuelsmaybecomeanimportantenergyalternative.

Beginninginthe1970's,privateconservationorganizationssuchastheNatureConservancy,theWorldWildlifeFund,andtheEnvironmentalDefenseFundbecamemoreprominent.Theseorganizationspublicizetheplightofendangeredspeciesa