經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)原理（第六版）N.格里高利.曼昆著梁小民，梁礫譯北京大學(xué)出版社，20122012

South-Western,

a

part

of

Gengage

Learning,all

rights

reserved參考教材宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)(第10版)魯?shù)细瘛ざ喽鞑际?Rudiger

Dornbusch)、斯坦利·費(fèi)希爾

(Stanley

Fischer)、理查德·斯塔茲(Richard

Startz)中國(guó)人民大學(xué)出版社(2010-01出版)微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)(第7版)羅伯特·S·平狄克(Robert

S.Pindyck)、丹尼爾·L·魯賓費(fèi)爾德(Daniel

L.Rubinfeld)、高遠(yuǎn)、朱海洋中國(guó)人民大學(xué)出版社

(2009-09出版)3經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)的十大原理北京大學(xué)出版社，2012經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)原理(第六版)N.格里高利.曼昆著梁小民，梁礫譯Chapter

1本章我們將探索這些問題的答案:經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)研究什么問題?人們?nèi)绾巫龀鰶Q策?人們?nèi)绾蜗嗷ソ灰?整體經(jīng)濟(jì)如何運(yùn)行?4You

might

want

to

elaborate

a

bit

on

some

of

the

points

made

here.

Some

examples:“How

do

people

decide

how

much

to

work?”

Time

is

scarce

resource

–

there’s

just

not

enoughtimeto

do

everything

we’d

liketo

do.

How

dowe

decide

how

muchof

our

time

to

spend

working?

There’s

a

tradeoff:

the

more

time

we

spend

working,

the

higher

our

income,

and

thereforethe

more

stuff

we

can

buy.

But,

the

more

time

we

spend

working,

the

less

time

we

have

for

leisure

–

hanging

out

with

friends,

going

hiking,watching

movies,

etc.

(You

might

want

to

ask

your

students

how

THEY

decide

how

much

time

to

spend

working.

Some

will

say

it

depends

onhow

many

classes

they

are

taking,

or

the

time

requirements

of

the

available

jobs.

But

probably

at

least

a

few

will

say

the

wage

–the

higher

thewage,

the

more

worthwhile

to

work.)“How

do

firms

decide

what

kindof

laborto

hire?”

Firms

can

hire

unskilledor

skilled

workers.

The

skilled

workers

are

more

productive,

butcost

more

than

the

unskilled

workers.“How

do

firms

decide

how

much

to

produce?”

Ask

your

students,

and

see

if

any

of

themsay

“it

depends

on

the

price

of

the

product

theysell.”

(Probably

some

will

say

“it

depends

on

whether

there’s

a

lot

of

demand

for

the

product”.

To

which

you

might

respond

“and

if

there’s

a

lotof

demand

for

the

product,

what

does

that

mean

for

the

price

that

firms

can

get

for

the

product?”)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)研究什么?稀缺性:社會(huì)資源的有限性經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué):研究社會(huì)如何管理自己的稀缺資源,比如：–人們決定購買什么,工作多長(zhǎng)時(shí)間，儲(chǔ)蓄多少，消費(fèi)多少–企業(yè)決定生產(chǎn)多少，雇傭多少工人–社會(huì)決定如何在國(guó)防，消費(fèi)物品，環(huán)境保護(hù)和其他需求之間分配資源Decision-making

isat

the

heart

of

economics.

The

individual

must

decide

howmuch

to

save

for

retirement,

howmuch

to

spend

on

differentgoods

and

services,

how

manyhours

a

weekto

work.

The

firmmust

decide

how

much

toproduce,

what

kind

of

labor

to

hire.

Society

as

awhole

must

decide

how

much

to

spend

on

national

defense

(“guns”)

versus

how

much

to

spend

on

consumer

goods

(“butter”).人們?nèi)绾巫龀鰶Q策人們?nèi)绾巫龀鰶Q策原理一: 人們面臨權(quán)衡取舍所有決策都面臨著權(quán)衡取舍。比如:參加期中考試前一天晚上的聚會(huì)意味著更少的時(shí)間學(xué)習(xí)想要更多的收入需要工作更長(zhǎng)時(shí)間，這就使得休息時(shí)間減少保護(hù)環(huán)境意味著生產(chǎn)消費(fèi)物品的資源減少HEADS

UP.

The

5th

edition

uses

“equality.”

The

fourth

and

earlier

editions

used

“equity”

here.You

may

want

to

elaborate

verbally

on

the

last

bullet

to

insure

that

the

point

is

clear.“Redistribute

income

fromwealthy

to

poor”

is

accomplished

through

the

progressive

taxsystem,

as

well

as

social

programs

like

food

stamps

andunemployment

insurance

that

try

to

provide

asafety

net

for

people

at

the

lowend

of

the

income

distribution.“But

this

reduces

the

incentive

to

work”

–the

reward

for

working

hard

is

a

highincome.

Taxes

reduce

this

reward,

and

therefore

reduce

theincentive

to

work

hard.人們?nèi)绾巫龀鰶Q策原理一: 人們面臨權(quán)衡取舍社會(huì)面臨一種重要的權(quán)衡取舍:效率vs.平等效率:社會(huì)能從其稀缺資源中得到的最大利益平等:經(jīng)濟(jì)成果在社會(huì)成員中平均分配權(quán)衡取舍：為使社會(huì)更加平等,需要在富人與窮人之間重新分配收入。但這會(huì)減少工作與生產(chǎn)的激勵(lì)，并縮小經(jīng)濟(jì)“蛋糕”的規(guī)模人們做出決策時(shí)需要比較可供選擇行動(dòng)方案的成本與利益任何一種東西的機(jī)會(huì)成本是為了得到這種東西所放棄的東西這是人們做決策的相關(guān)成本經(jīng)濟(jì)成本=顯性成本+隱性成本理解機(jī)會(huì)成本是學(xué)會(huì)用經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)思維思考問題的重要一步為何在釣魚島問題上，南海問題上比較克制？？人們?nèi)绾巫龀鰶Q策原理二: 某種東西的成本是為了得到它所放棄的東西Here’s

a

fun

tangent

if

you

have

the

class

time

and

are

so

inclined:Ask

your

students

about

the

saying

“The

bestthings

in

life

are

free.”

Ask

themto

name

some

of

these

things

that

supposedly

are

free.

Ask

themwhat

“free”

means

in

this

context.

The

idea

here

isto

getthemto

see

that

even

things

withoutan

explicit

monetary

cost

are

not

truly

“free”because

theyhave

an

opportunity

cost.For

example,

whenyou

ask

themto

name

the

“best

things”

that

are

“free,”

they

will

respond

with

answers

like

love,

sitting

at

the

top

of

amountain

you

just

climbed

and

enjoyingan

awesome

view,

ormaybe

witnessingthe

joy

of

achild

who

has

just

been

givenanew

toy.

In

eachcase,

there

is

no

explicit

monetary

cost,

but

there’s

an

opportunity

cost.For

example,

a

day

spentclimbing

a

mountain

represents

a

day

of

foregone

wages.

And

the

fact

that

the

mountain

offers

the

incredible

view

probably

meansthat

land

has

been

setaside

for

a

national

parkthat

might

otherwise

havebeen

used

to

produce

industrial

chemicals,or

for

a

subdivision

of

million-dollar

homes.With

love,

it’s

less

obvious,

but

if

prodded

enough,

your

students

will

be

able

to

thinkof

non-monetary

costs

associated

with

love.

For

example,you

might

not

want

to

see

the

latest

Ashton

Kutcher

film,

you

might

think

he’s

the

world’s

worst

actor.

But

your

boyfriend/girlfriend/teenagedaughter

or

other

loved

one

is

DYING

to

see

it,

they

are

BEGGING

you

to

take

them.

So

you

take

them.

That’s

true

love,

don’t

youthink?

And

it’s

certainly

not

free.人們?nèi)绾巫龀鰶Q策原理二:某種東西的成本是為了得到它所放棄的東西例如：上一年大學(xué)的機(jī)會(huì)成本不僅僅是學(xué)費(fèi)，書籍，住房和伙食的錢全部加起來，還包括由于沒有工作而損失的工資看一場(chǎng)電影的機(jī)會(huì)成本不僅是票價(jià)，還包括你呆在劇院的時(shí)間的價(jià)值人們?nèi)绾巫龀鰶Q策原理三:理性人考慮邊際量理性人：系統(tǒng)而有目的地盡最大努力實(shí)現(xiàn)其目標(biāo)的人通過比較成本與利益的邊際變動(dòng)來做出決策邊際變動(dòng)–對(duì)現(xiàn)有行動(dòng)計(jì)劃的微小增量調(diào)整See

the

textbook

for

two

classic

examples:1.

The

diamond-water

paradox:

water

is

essential

for

life

but

virtually

free;

diamonds

are

inessential

but

expensive.2.

The

near-zero

marginal

cost

of

an

airline

taking

an

extra

passenger

when

the

flight

isn’t

full.人們?nèi)绾巫龀鰶Q策原理三: 理性人考慮邊際量邊際量是某經(jīng)濟(jì)變量在一定影響因素下發(fā)生的變動(dòng)量。利潤(rùn)最大化時(shí)邊際成本=邊際收益經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)用邊際來衡量現(xiàn)有經(jīng)濟(jì)行動(dòng)計(jì)劃的微小增量調(diào)整例如:當(dāng)一個(gè)大學(xué)生考慮是否要多上一年學(xué)時(shí)，他會(huì)比較學(xué)費(fèi)加上損失的工資和多上一年學(xué)所增加的額外收入當(dāng)一個(gè)經(jīng)理在考慮是否要增加產(chǎn)出時(shí),她會(huì)在增加的勞動(dòng)力與原材料的成本和額外的收益之間進(jìn)行比較人們?nèi)绾巫龀鰶Q策原理四: 人們會(huì)對(duì)激勵(lì)做出反應(yīng)激勵(lì)：引起一個(gè)人做出某種行為的某種東西，諸如懲罰或獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)的預(yù)期當(dāng)成本或收益變化，人們的行為變化，即人們對(duì)激勵(lì)作出反映。政府政策改變了人們面臨成本收益，改變了行為鼓勵(lì)激勵(lì)，帶動(dòng)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展理性人會(huì)對(duì)激勵(lì)做出反應(yīng)例如：–當(dāng)汽油價(jià)格上漲時(shí),消費(fèi)者會(huì)更多的購買混合動(dòng)力汽車，更少購買耗油的越野車：上海對(duì)電動(dòng)車補(bǔ)貼10萬元。一系列對(duì)戰(zhàn)略性新興產(chǎn)業(yè)的鼓勵(lì)–當(dāng)煙草稅上升時(shí)，青少年吸煙人數(shù)會(huì)下降–家電下鄉(xiāng)Most

of

these

PowerPoint

chapters

have

two

orthree

Active

Learningactivities.

They

break

up

the

lecture

with

a

short

in-class

activity

forimmediate

reinforcement,

application,

or

assessment

of

the

material

in

the

preceding

slides.A

good

idea

is

to

give

students

time

to

formulate

their

answers

before

asking

for

volunteers

to

share

their

answers

with

the

class.

When

thequestions

or

exercises

are

more

complex,

consider

having

themwork

in

pairs.Digression

on

class

participation:In

general,

it’s

not

a

good

idea

to

try

to

solicit

participation

by

saying

“Nowwho

can

tell

me

the

answer

to….”.

The

invariable

result

is

regularparticipation

by

very

fewstudents–

the

quick

thinkers

who

have

the

confidence

to

answer

spontaneously

in

frontof

the

class–

while

moststudents

remain

silent.When

students

haveabitoftime

to

think

throughtheir

answers,

they

are

more

likely

to

be

comfortable

sharing

their

answers

withyou

and

theclass.Even

better:

try

a

simple,

time-tested

activity

called

“THINK-PAIR-SHARE.”

Pair

students

up.

Pose

a

question

or

problem.

Have

studentswork

on

the

problemindividually

for

a

couple

minutes.

Then,

allow

a

couple

minutes

to

work

in

pairs:

each

student

triesto

explain

to

the

otherwhy

his

or

her

answer

is

correct,

and

the

other

offersfeedback.

In

many

cases,

they

come

up

with

better

answers

by

working

together.

Finally,ask

for

volunteers.

Students

are

much

more

likely

to

participate

since

they

have

had

the

opportunity

to

“test”

their

answers

on

a

classmate.

Andthose

who

do

not

participate

will

atleast

have

had

the

chance

to

share

their

answer

with,

and

get

feedback

from,

one

other

student.Activities

like

these

are

useful

to

break

up

a

lecture

every

20

minutesorso.

They

help

maintain

students’

attention

spans,

and

increase

theircomprehension

of

the

material

you

cover.

These

activities

are

also

useful

for

quick,

informal

assessment

–

often,

they

will

alert

you

to

problems(such

as

students

not

getting

what

you

think

they’re

getting)

which

you

can

then

correct

before

moving

on

to

cover

additional

material.End

of

digression.你準(zhǔn)備出售一款1996年的福田野馬，并且已經(jīng)在這輛車的維修上面花了$1000。然而，車的變速器壞了，你能夠選擇再花$600將車修好，或者就此售出在下面的情形中，你應(yīng)該把變速器修好嗎？并解釋如果變速器正常，汽車價(jià)值是$6500。如果不正常，則是$5700如果變速器正常，汽車價(jià)值是$6000。如果不正常，則是$5500思考與練習(xí)114修理變速器的成本=$600如果變速器正常，汽車價(jià)值是$6500。如果不正常，則是$5700修理變速器的收益=$800($6500–5700)因此，修理變速器是值得的如果變速器正常，汽車價(jià)值是$6000。如果不正常，則是$5500修理變速器的收益僅僅為$500因此花費(fèi)$600修理變速器是不值得的思考與練習(xí)1

參考答案15If

you

wish,

you

can

omit

this

slide

and

just

give

this

information

to

the

classverbally.思考:你最初花在維修上的$1000沒有任何影響，重要的是邊際修理（變速器）的收益與成本由A情形到B情形激勵(lì)的改變導(dǎo)致你決策的改變思考與練習(xí)答案162010年，上海市政府對(duì)符合《上海市產(chǎn)業(yè)結(jié)構(gòu)調(diào)整專項(xiàng)扶持暫行辦法》要求的項(xiàng)目，每下降1t標(biāo)煤給予補(bǔ)助500元，最高補(bǔ)助標(biāo)準(zhǔn)5000萬元；對(duì)符合《上海市節(jié)能技術(shù)改造項(xiàng)目專項(xiàng)扶持實(shí)施辦法》、《上海市合同能源管理項(xiàng)目專項(xiàng)扶持實(shí)施辦法》要求的節(jié)能技改項(xiàng)目、合同能源管理項(xiàng)目，按照每節(jié)約1t標(biāo)準(zhǔn)煤500元進(jìn)行獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)，單個(gè)項(xiàng)目獎(jiǎng)勵(lì)金額原則上最高達(dá)500萬元；對(duì)符合《上海市鼓勵(lì)企業(yè)實(shí)施清潔生產(chǎn)專項(xiàng)扶持實(shí)施辦法》規(guī)定的項(xiàng)目，按不超過投資額的20%予以補(bǔ)貼，資助金額最高達(dá)100萬元；對(duì)符合《上海市可再生能源和新能源發(fā)展專項(xiàng)資金扶持辦法》要求的可再生能源和新能源發(fā)展的重點(diǎn)領(lǐng)域的示范項(xiàng)目進(jìn)行無償資助或1-3年不超過3%的貸款貼息支助；對(duì)符合《上海市循環(huán)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展和資源綜合利用專項(xiàng)扶持辦法》規(guī)定的工業(yè)、城建、農(nóng)林和生活等廢棄物的資源綜合利用給予支持。Whether

we’re

talking

about

the

U.S.

economy,

or

the

local

economy,

the

term“economy”

simply

meansa

group

of

people

interactingwith

eachother.These

interactions

play

acritical

role

in

the

allocation

of

society’s

scarce

resources.

For

example,

the

interaction

of

buyers

and

sellers

determinesthe

prices

of

goods

and

the

amounts

produced

andsold.

These

interactions

are

an

important

part

of

what

economists

study.人們?nèi)绾蜗嗷ソ灰譏f

each

person

had

to

grow

his

own

food,

make

his

own

clothes,

cut

his

own

hair,

we

would

have

a

world

full

of

skinny,

unfashionable

poorpeople

having

bad

hair

days

every

day

of

the

week.It’s

far

more

efficient

for

each

person

to

specialize

in

producing

a

good

or

service,

and

then

exchanging

it

withother

people

for

the

things

theyproduce.The

statement

“trade

can

make

everyone

better

off”

should

not

be

hard

to

understand,

if

you

think

about

it

for

a

moment:

Each

of

two

partieswould

not

voluntarilyenter

into

anexchange

if

it

made

either

of

themworse

off,

now

would

they?The

same

principles

apply

at

the

national

and

international

level:

International

trade

allows

countries

to

sell

their

exports

abroad

and

get

a

higherprice,

and

to

buy

things

fromabroad

more

cheaply

than

they

could

produce

at

home.In

addition,

trade

gives

a

country’s

consumers

access

to

a

greater

variety

of

goods

–

includinggoods

they

might

notbe

able

to

get

at

all.

Forexample,

U.S.

consumers

enjoy

a

variety

of

fresh

produce

year-round.

This

would

not

be

possible

without

international

trade.人們?nèi)绾蜗嗷ソ灰自?:貿(mào)易可以使每個(gè)人的狀況都變得更好人們可以專門生產(chǎn)一種物品或勞務(wù)并用來交換其他物品或勞務(wù)，而不必自給自足國(guó)家之間也能從貿(mào)易與專業(yè)化中受益–將他們生產(chǎn)的物品出口而得到一個(gè)更好的價(jià)格–從國(guó)外進(jìn)口更便宜的物品而不用在國(guó)內(nèi)自己生產(chǎn)A

market

economy

is

“decentralized,”

meaning

that

there

is

no

government

committee

that

makes

the

decisions

about

what

goods

to

produce

andso

forth.

Instead,

many

households

and

firms

make

their

own

decisions:*

Each

of

many

households

decides

who

to

work

for

and

what

goods

to

buy.*Each

of

many

firms

decides

whomto

hire

and

what

goods

to

produce.人們?nèi)绾蜗嗷ソ灰自?:市場(chǎng)通常是組織經(jīng)濟(jì)活動(dòng)的一種好方法市場(chǎng):

大量的買者與賣者(不必要在同一個(gè)地點(diǎn))組織經(jīng)濟(jì)活動(dòng)意味著需要決定–生產(chǎn)什么–怎么生產(chǎn)–生產(chǎn)多少–誰將得到它們In

all

versions

of

this

textbook

except

Brief

Principles

of

Macroeconomics,

market

efficiency

and

the

invisible

hand

are

covered

morethoroughly

in

Chapter

7.人們?nèi)绾蜗嗷ソ灰自?:市場(chǎng)通常是組織經(jīng)濟(jì)活動(dòng)的一種好方法市場(chǎng)經(jīng)濟(jì)：許多企業(yè)和家庭在物品和勞務(wù)市場(chǎng)上相互交易，通過他們的分散決策來配置資源的經(jīng)濟(jì)亞當(dāng).斯密在《國(guó)富論》（1776）中的著名觀察結(jié)果：家庭和企業(yè)仿佛被一只“看不見的手”所指引，在市場(chǎng)上相互交易，并增進(jìn)整體經(jīng)濟(jì)的福利人們?nèi)绾蜗嗷ソ灰自?:市場(chǎng)通常是組織經(jīng)濟(jì)活動(dòng)的一種好方法“看不見的手”通過價(jià)格體系來發(fā)揮作用:–買者與賣者之間的相互作用決定市場(chǎng)價(jià)格–每個(gè)價(jià)格即反映了物品對(duì)于買者的價(jià)值，也反映了生產(chǎn)物品的成本–在許多情況下，價(jià)格引導(dǎo)自利的家庭與企業(yè)做出使社會(huì)經(jīng)濟(jì)福利最大化的決策[“Govt”

is

an

abbreviation

for

government.

Throughout

all

of

the

Premium

PowerPoint

chapters,

I

try

to

use

abbreviations

the

way

a

thoughtfulinstructor

would

use

themif

writing

on

a

chalkboard.

If

you

prefer

to

spell

the

word

out,

just

use

your

mouse

to

highlight

“govt”

and

then

type

outthe

full

word.]Two

examplesof

the

idea

in

the

second

bullet

point:A

restaurant

won’t

serve

meals

if

customers

do

not

pay

before

they

leave.A

music

company

won’t

produce

CDs

if

too

many

people

avoid

paying

by

makingillegal

copies.Many

fledgingmarket

economies

are

struggling

through

the

transition

fromcentral

planning

because

they

have

not

developed

institutions

thatprotect

and

enforce

property

rights.

The

British

news

magazine

The

Economist

has

lots

of

current

examples

of

this.

An

older

but

still

interestingexample

comes

froma

column

that

Mankiw

wrote

in

the

June

12,

2000

issue

of

Fortune

magazine

entitled

“Ukraine:

How

Not

To

Run

AnEconomy.”人們?nèi)绾蜗嗷ソ灰自?:政府有時(shí)可以改善市場(chǎng)結(jié)果看見的手與看不見的手；市場(chǎng)調(diào)節(jié)的弊端；政府調(diào)控（貨幣和金融政策）好處，如房地產(chǎn)限購、房產(chǎn)稅等政府的重要作用:保護(hù)產(chǎn)權(quán)

(通過警察，法庭)如果人們的財(cái)產(chǎn)存在很大的被侵犯的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)，那么他們便不愿意工作，生產(chǎn)，投資或者購買物品人們?nèi)绾蜗嗷ソ灰自?:政府有時(shí)可以改善市場(chǎng)結(jié)果糾正市場(chǎng)失靈市場(chǎng)失靈：市場(chǎng)本身不能有效配置資源的情況原因：外部性：生產(chǎn)或消費(fèi)一個(gè)物品影響到旁觀者的福利（比如：污染）市場(chǎng)勢(shì)力：?jiǎn)蝹€(gè)買者或賣者有能顯著影響市場(chǎng)價(jià)格的能力（比如，壟斷）在這些情況下，公共政策能增進(jìn)效率人們?nèi)绾蜗嗷ソ灰自?:政府有時(shí)可以改善市場(chǎng)結(jié)果政府可以改變市場(chǎng)結(jié)果以促進(jìn)公平如果經(jīng)濟(jì)福利的市場(chǎng)分配結(jié)果不是合意的，稅收或福利政策能改變經(jīng)濟(jì)“蛋糕”的分配方式The

items

in

this

list

are

meant

to

get

students

thinking

about

Principles6

and

7

in

the

context

of

specific

examples,

and

to

generate

discussionrather

than

arrive

at

definitive

answers.NOTE:

Discussing

the

entire

list

would

consume

alot

of

class

time

(20-25

minutes).

Two

would

suffice.

Pick

your

favorite

two

anddelete

the

others.

Of

course,

you

can

skip

this

slide

entirely

if

you

wish

to

get

through

the

chapter

asquickly

aspossible.Here

are

some

notes

whichmight

help

guide

the

discussion:a.

Public

schools.

The

alternative

would

be

private

schools.

Thecost

of

education

would

beconcentrated

among

those

with

school-agedchildren,

rather

than

spread

over

all

taxpayers,

so

the

price

per

child

would

likely

be

high.

Some

families

would

notbe

able

to

afford

to

enrolltheir

childrenin

schools,

and

would

either

home-school

the

childrenor

raise

themwithout

education.

Is

the

benefit

to

society

of

having

aneducated

population

large

enoughto

justify

making

people

without

children

share

in

thecost?

Could

the

private

sector

provide

education

moreefficiently(either

at

lower

costor

higher

quality)

than

the

public

sector?b.

Workplace

safetyregulations.

Without

such

regulations,

would

firms

provide

a

safe

environment

for

their

workers?

Some

students

will

say“no

–

look

athow

bad

working

conditions

are

in

poor

countries

which

have

no

safety

regulations.”

Another

view

is

dropping

such

regulationswould

make

workers

better

off.

Workers

mayview

the

safety

of

their

work

environment

aspart

of

their

wage:

the

less

safe

the

environment

at

aspecific

firm,

the

higher

the

wage

the

firmwill

have

to

offer

to

make

workers

willing

to

work

there.

If

workers

vary

with

respect

to

their

tolerancefor

unsafe

conditions,

then

workers

with

ahigh

risk

tolerance

would

be

better

off

if

given

the

option

to

work

for

higher

wages

in

factories

that

aren’t

as

safe.

Such

workers

would

be

worse

off

if

the

government

required

all

firms

to

provide

equally

safe

conditions.c.

Public

highways.

The

alternative

would

betoll

highways

operated

by

the

private

sector.

People

who

use

highways

more

would

pay

more,and

people

that

use

themless

would

pay

less,

whichseems

fairer

than

having

everyone

pay

equally

for

highways.

(Actually,

everyone

does

not

pay

equally

-

people

who

use

public

roads

more

buy

more

gas,

and

therefore

pay

more

gas

tax.)

If

there

are

external

benefitsto

society

of

havinga

national

highwaysystem,

then

the

private

sector

would

under-provide

this

good.d.

Patent

laws.

I’ve

kind

of

loaded

the

question

with

the

wording

on

the

slide.

If

you

wish,

change

it

to

just

“Patent

laws.”

Isit

fairthat

drug

companies

charge

such

high

prices

for

drugsthat

some

people

need

tostay

alive?

If

drug

prices

are

regulated,

how

might

pharmaceutical

firms

respond?政府在下述情形中發(fā)揮何種作用？政府的干預(yù)有助于結(jié)果的改善嗎？K-12公立學(xué)校工作環(huán)境安全的監(jiān)管

c.公共高速公路d.專利法允許制藥公司對(duì)急救藥索取高價(jià)思考與練習(xí)226整體經(jīng)濟(jì)如何運(yùn)行“Rich

countries”

refers

to

countries

like

the

U.S.,

Japan,

and

Germany.“Poor

countries”

refers

to

countries

like

India,

Indonesia,

and

Nigeria.各國(guó)不同時(shí)期生活水平的巨大差異：–發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家的平均收入是發(fā)展中國(guó)家平均收入的十倍以上–今天美國(guó)的生活水平比100年以前大約增長(zhǎng)了八倍整體經(jīng)濟(jì)如何運(yùn)行原理8:一國(guó)的生活水平取決于它生產(chǎn)物品與勞務(wù)的能力整體經(jīng)濟(jì)如何運(yùn)行原理8：一國(guó)的生活水平取決于它生產(chǎn)物品與勞務(wù)的能力決定生活水平的最重要因素：生產(chǎn)率，即每一單位勞動(dòng)投入所生產(chǎn)的物品與勞務(wù)數(shù)量生產(chǎn)率取決于設(shè)備，勞動(dòng)者的技能以及可用的技術(shù)其它因素（比如，工會(huì)組織，國(guó)外的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)）對(duì)于生活水平的影響遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)小于生產(chǎn)率整體經(jīng)濟(jì)如何運(yùn)行原理9:當(dāng)政府發(fā)行了過多貨幣時(shí)，物價(jià)上升通貨膨脹：物價(jià)總水平的上升長(zhǎng)期而言，通貨膨脹總是由于貨幣數(shù)量的過度增長(zhǎng)而導(dǎo)致貨幣價(jià)值的下降所引起政府創(chuàng)造貨幣的速度越快，通脹率越高While

the

long-run

effect

of

increasing

the

quantity

ofmoney

is

inflation,

the

short-run

effects

are

more

complicated

-

andcontroversial.

However,

most

mainstream

economists

believe

the

following:

An

increase

in

the

quantity

of

money

causes

spending

to

rise,

whichcauses

prices

to

rise,

which

induces

firms

to

produce

more

goods

and

services,

which

requires

that

they

hire

more

workers.

Hence,

in

the

short-run,

increasing

the

quantity

of

money

causes

inflation

to

rise,

but

unemployment

to

fall.Of

course,

REDUCING

the

quantity

of

money

would

have

the

opposite

effects

(inflation

would

fall,

while

unemployment

would

rise)

in

the

shortrun.Keep

in

mind,

though,

the

lesson

from

Principle

#9:

In

the

long

run,

changing

the

quantity

of

money

only

affects

inflation.

We

will

learn

in

a

later

chapter

what

determines

the

rate

of

unemployment

in

the

long

run,

and

we

will

see

that

it

has

nothing

to

do

wi