Cell&ModuleTechnologyTrends2025

KeyDevelopmentsInTOPCon,HJT&BCSolarCellsandModules

Authors:ShravanK.Chunduri,MichaelSchmela

2TaiyangNewsModuleTechnologyTrends

Cell&ModuleTechnologyTrends|TaiyangNews3

ExecutiveSummary

Today’sPVtechnoIogyIandscapereflectsan

ecosystemwheremultipletechnologiescoexist.

WhileTOPConhasemergedasthestandard,

itscontemporaries–heterojunction(HJT)and

themoreadvancedbackcontact(BC)structure-

arealsoinhigh-volumeproduction,withnotable

progressacrossall.Althoughsomeinnovations

remaintechnoIogy-specific,others一especiaIIyat

themodulelevel–areincreasinglyapplicableacrossplatforms.Thisreportoffersahigh-leveloverviewofsuchdevelopments.

Startingupstream,animportantinnovationiningotproductionisLONGi’sproprietaryTRCZprocess,whichofferspreciseresistivitycontrolfromseedtotailwhilemaintainingRCZ’scostadvantages.

TaiRaywafersmadeviaTRCZalsoenablebettergettering.Regardingwaferspecifications,BCisthemostdemanding,followedbyTOPCon,whileHJTisthemostforgiving,particularlyintermsofoxygencontent.

InTOPCon,onemajoradvancementislaser-assistedcontactformation,whichdecouplesmetalcontact

recombinationfromcontactresistivity.Deposition

methodslikeLPCVDandPECVDnowdeliver

comparableperformance,havingovercomeearlierlimitations.PVDisalsoemergingasaviablethird

option.Anothernotabletrendisedgepassivation,

addressingdefectsfromslicinglargewafersinto

halves.Simultaneously,vendorsaredeveloping

toolstailoredtohalf-cellprocessing,apracticelongestablishedinHJT.Meanwhile,patentdisputeshavecreateduncertaintyinsomemarkets,prompting

shiftsawayfromTOPCon–especiallyintheU.S.

Lookingahead,SeveralTOPConmanufacturersareexpIoringrearpoIy一fingers一borrowedfromBC

designs–toreduceparasiticabsorptionandboostefficiencybyappIyingpoIysiIicononIybeneathrearmetalcontacts

ForHJT,thefoundationalstructurehasalready

undergoneakeyshiftfromdopedamorphous

silicontomicrocrystallinesilicon,whichhasbecomeastandard.Thenextfrontierliesinmetallization

costreduction.Manufacturersaremovingin3keydirections:increasingthenumberofbusbarsandeventuallyeliminatingthemthroughzero-busbar

(ZBB)designs;loweringthepastelaydownby

reducingthefingerwidthandreducingthesiIver

consumptionbyloweringthesilverloading;and

ultimatelygoingsilver-free.Companiesarealso

focusingonhighmobilityTCOmaterialusedinHJTprocessing.

BCtechnologyismoreopaquecomparedto

itspeersduetotheproprietarynatureofits

development.However,insightsfromindustry

leaderslikeLONGi,AIKO,andSPICrevealsharedthemes.BCisaplatformthatcanbebasedon

variouscellarchitectures.However,themajorityofmanufacturersareusingbipolarpassivatedcontacts.LasertechnologyplaysavitalroleinBCsolarcell

manufacturing,particularlyinenablingtherear-sidestructuringthatdefinesthisarchitecture.WhiIetherehavebeensomegrowingpainswithlasersinthe

beginning,today’slasercanverywellsupportthe

throughputaswellasqualityrequirementsofBCcellmakers.Whenitcomestometallization,allmajorBCmanufacturersareactivelyexploringwaystoreduceorreplacesilver,withaclearfocusoncopper-basedsolutions.AndadoptingZBBisacommonstrategytoreducesilverconsumption.

Atthemodulelevel,theindustryiswitnessingashiftfroma6one-size-fits-aII’approachtoproductsto

appIication-specificdesigns.ModuIemanufacturersarenowtailoringtheirBOMstomeetthediverse

demandsofdifferentclimates,installation

environments,andsystemconfigurations.Asaresult,almosteverytraditionalcomponent–beitglass,encapsulanttype,backsheet,orframe–hasanalternative,enhancingtheapplicationandintegrationspectrumofPV.

tEnjoyreadingourCell&ModuleTechnologyTrends2025

MichaelSchmela

ManagingDirector,TaiyangNews

michael.schmela@

+491731570999

Duesseldorf,Germany

ShravanK.Chunduri

HeadofTechnology,TaiyangNews

shravan.chunduri@

+919963270005Hyderabad,India

4TaiyangNews|Cell&ModuleTechnologyTrends

Contents

01

Introduction7

04

BackContact(BC)35

?Wafers

?Cells

?Modules

02

TOPCon11

?Wafers

?Cells

05

Modules45

?Efficiency&Power

?ZeroBusBar

?InnovationsinBOM

03

Heterojunction(HJT)25

?Wafers

?Cells

Advertisers:

?

LONGip.2

?

AIKOp.

4

?

JASolarp.

6

?

JinkoSolarp.

10

?

DMEGCSolarp.

14

?TaiyangNews2025

Allrightsreserved.

Cell&ModuleTechnologyTrends2025

ISBN978-3-949046-30-8

Thetext,photosandgraphsinthisreportarecopyrighted(coverphotocredit:

JinkoSolar,AIKO,Huasun,LONGi).TaiyangNewsdoesnotguaranteereliability,accuracyorcompletenessofthisreport'scontent.TaiyangNewsdoesnotacceptresponsibilityorliabilityforanyerrorsinthiswork.

Publisher:

TaiyangNewsUG(haftungsbeschraenkt)AnderGolzheimerHeide23

40468Duesseldorf,Germany

?

Trinasolarp.

19

?

VON

ARDENNEp.22

?

GCLp.

28

?

Tongwei

p.31

?

RisenEnergy

p.34

?

DASSolarp.

38

?

HANGZHOU

FIRSTp.41

?

DKEMp.44

?

Solametp.49

?

Cybridp.

51

?

Huasunp.55

Cell&ModuleTechnologyTrends|TaiyangNews5

HailResistantTyphoon-proof

Rooftop

platecuoffshoreExtremecold

Anti-Glare

Het&Humid

Lightweight

DesertAnti-Flcre

Cell&ModuleTechnologyTrends|TaiyangNews7

1.Introduction

It’sremarkablehowmuchthesolarlandscape

hastransformedinjust5years.Whatwasonce

aPERC-dominatedworldhasnowevolvedinto

adynamicecosystemledbyTOPCon,withHJT

andback-contact(BC)technologiesalsointhe

fray,backedwithmulti-GWscalecapacities.And

it’snotjustaboutnewcellarchitectures–each

ofthesetechnologiesisadvancingatasteady

clip.Meanwhile,themoduleside–oftenseen

asconservative–isalsoincreasinglybecoming

innovative.Wearenowseeingapplication-specificdesignsandtailoredbillsofmaterials(BOM),withalmosteveryconventionalcomponentfacingan

alternative.Innovativeinterconnectionprocesses

arealsohelpingtodebottleneckcell-levellimitations–forexample,reducingsilverusage.Behindthe

scenes,manufacturingprocessesandproductionequipmentarebeingcontinuouslyrefinedtokeeppacewiththeseshifts.

AtTaiyangNews,we’vebeentrackingthese

technologicalshiftscloselythroughourin-depth

reportsandinsightfulvirtualconferences,providingafront-rowviewofthePVindustry’sdevelopment.

Thesepublicationsandforumstakeadeepdiveintotherelevantaspectsofeachtechnology,providingacomprehensiveunderstandingoftheirdevelopmentsandimpact.

Thisreportoffersabird’s-eyeviewofoverall

technologydevelopments,focusingonkey

advancementsacrosseachmainstreamPV

technology.TheTaiyangNewsCell&Module

TechnologyTrends2025reportdistilsthecore

trendsdrivingtheadvancementofTOPConandHJT,the2front-runningnext-generationtechnologies.

AndwhileBCremainslargelyproprietary,we

examineitsdefiningcharacteristicsandhighlighttherecentadvancementsshapingitsfutureroleinhigh-efficiencysolar.

1.1MarketSharesofDifferentTechnologies

Beforegoingintothedetails,hereisaquickpeek

intothemarketsharesofPVtechnologies.The

graphbelowsummarizesthemarketshareestimatesfordifferentsolarcelltechnologiesasprojectedbyITRPV,CPIA,andresearchfirmExawatt.

MarketShareComparisonbySourceandTechnology

MarketShare(%)

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Exawatt

ITRPV

CPIA

S&PGlobal

2024

Exawatt

CPIA

ITRPV

2025

Exawatt

CPIA

2026

Exawatt

CPIA

ITRPV

2027

Exawatt

CPIA

2028

Exawatt

ITRPV

2029

CPIA

2030

ITRPV

2032

ITRPV

2035

PERCTOPConHJTXBCTandem

Source:CPIA,Exawatt;ITRPV,S&PGlobal

TOPConisthemainstream:Themarketsharepredictionfromvarioussources,highlightingthecontinuingdominanceofTOPConinthenearterm,thegradualriseofXBC,andthenHJTwiththephase-outofPERC,andtandemonlytoenterinabout4years.

8TaiyangNews|Cell&ModuleTechnologyTrends

ItiswellknownthatTOPConistheworkhorseof

theindustry,andallsourcesunanimouslyagree

thatTOPConwilldominatethecelltechnology

landscape.In2025,CPIAandExawattforecast

TOPContocapturearound80%ofthemarketshare,whileITRPVestimatesitslightlyloweratcloseto

70%.Thisleadershipisexpectedtopersistthroughthedecade,accordingtobothCPIAandExawatt,

beforegraduallydecliningto60%(CPIA)and54%.ITRPVestimatesthetechnologytopeakin2029,butstillataround70%andthendeclineto42%by2035.

HJTissteadilygainingtraction,withall3sources

forecastingagradualrise.In2025,itsestimated

sharerangesfrom4%accordingtoExawattto8%accordingtoITRPV.Thetechnologyisseengrowingslowlybutsurely,reaching10%by2028inExawattsview,and20%by2030accordingtoCPIA.ITRPV,incontrast,projectshigherinitialmarketcapture

10%alreadyin2027,butmoreconservativegrowththereafter,peakingat14%inthenext5yearsandslightlydecliningto12%by2035.

Althoughitsoundscounterintuitive,thetechnologyenvisionedtotakethesecondspotinmarketshareisXBC,notHJT.TheoutlookforXBC(back-contacttechnologies),includingTBC(TOPCon-based)andHBC(HJT-based),ismoredynamic.Startingfroman8%to10%sharein2025,allsourcesagreeonanupwardtrajectoryforthistechnology.Exawatt

isespeciallybullish,projectingadramaticriseto

35%by2029.Ontheotherhand,ITRPVisthemostconservativeinestimatingthetechnologytoreachalittleshortofthislevelinthenext10years.CPIAsprojectionisalsoontheconservativeside,butstillsignalsgrowth,reachingcloseto20%by2030.

Tandemtechnologies,suchassilicon-perovskite

stacks,areexpectedtoremainnicheinthenear

term,withnegligiblemarketpresencebefore2027.Thistechnologyisexpectedtobefirstbedetectableonthetechnologyradarin2029,accordingtobothITRPVandExawatt,withashareofabout3%.In

contrast,CPIAmaintainsacautiousoutlookwithjust1%in2030.

1.2InnovationsinUpstream

Asmarketsharesshiftamongcelltechnologies,

upstreamadvancementsaresettingthestageforbroaderperformancegainsacrossallarchitectures.LONGisTaiRaywafer,introducedlastyear,

earnsamentionhere.Thekeyaspectofthis

wafer,accordingtoLONGi,isadvancementin

siliconwafertechnology,aligningcloselywith

theevolvingneedsofhigh-efficiencysolarcell

manufacturing,underscoringthatwaferandcell

developmentareinseparablylinked.Thisnewingotgrowingtechnologyresultsinwafersthataddressperformanceandcostchallenges.Traditionally,

theingotproductionevolvedfromthestandard

Czochralski(CZ)processtoRechargeCzochralski(RCZ)toContinuousCzochralski(CCZ)methods,eachaimingtooptimizecost,resistivitycontrol,

andmaterialpurity.However,challengesremained,particularlywithCCZ,whereincreasedoxygen

contentandmetalimpurityaccumulationleadto

compromisedlifetimeandprocessyields,especiallyinn-typewafers.

Toaddressthisissue,LONGidevelopedanew

pullingapproach:TrailblazingRechargeCzochralski(TRCZ)technology.TRCZpreservestheproductivityandcostadvantagesofRCZwhileconsiderably

improvingresistivityuniformityandwaferqualityacrosstheingot.Thisinnovationledtothe

introductionoftheTaiRaywafer,whichhasbeenavailablecommerciallysincelatelastyear.

Thiswaferoffersseveralbreakthroughs.Itachievesexceptionalconsistencyinbulkresistivityfrom

theseedtothetailendsoftheingot,maintaining

variationwithinatight1.11.2ratio.Thisuniformityensuresthatmoduleproductionachieveshigher

efficiencyyields,improvedELuniformity,andbetterreliability.Moreover,TaiRaywafersarecompatiblewithallmainstreamcelltechnologies,including

TOPCon,HJT,andBCarchitectures.Thewafersareofferedindifferentgeometriesandthicknesses,meetingthedemandsofvariouscellvendors.

OneofthestandoutfeaturesoftheTaiRaywaferisitsoptimizeddopantengineering.Byusingantimony,LONGihasreducedthemigrationactivationenergyofintrinsicmetalimpurities,makingthemeasierto

removeduringthegetteringprocess.Thisadvantageisespeciallycriticalforsensitivetechnologies

likeHJT.Testsdemonstratedthateventail-endwafersmaintainhighperformanceaftergettering,outperformingbenchmarkedstandardsilicon

substrates.

Mechanicalstrengthhasalsobeenimproved.TaiRay

Cell&ModuleTechnologyTrends|TaiyangNews9

Source:LONGi

Tightresistivitydistribution:OneofthemajortechnicaladvancementswithTaiRaywafersfromLONGiisthetightresistivitydistributionalongtheingotlength.

wafersshowenhancedbendingresistance,openingpossibilitiesforthinnerwaferapplicationswithout

compromisingmoduledurability.

Performancetrialsacrossmultipletechnologies

validateTaiRay’sadvantages.InTOPConproductionlines,TaiRaywafersshowedclearpathwaysto

highercellefficienciesbybettermatchingresistivitytoprocessrequirements.InTBCandHBClines,

preliminaryresultssuggestasignificantupliftinperformancepotential.InHJTapplications,wherelifetimeuniformityiscrucial,TaiRaydemonstratednotableimprovements,evenacrosslongeringotruns.

10TaiyangNews|Cell&ModuleTechnologyTrends

Cell&ModuleTechnologyTrends|TaiyangNews11

2.TOPCon

Asdiscussedabove,TOPConhasfirmlyestablisheditselfasthemainstreamtechnologyintodays

PVproductionlandscape.Whilethetransition

fromPERCtoTOPConcamewithitsownset

ofchallenges,thesehavebeenprogressively

addressedthroughtheconcertedeffortsofthesolarindustryrangingfrommaterialsandequipment

supplierstocellandmodulemanufacturers.ThischapteroutlinesthemostimportanttechnologicaladvancementsthathavesupportedTOPCons

rise,startingwithdevelopmentsatthewaferlevel,followedbyinnovationsinprocessingthathave

enableditsrapidindustrialadoption.

2.1Wafers

Oneofthekeyingredientsofmostadvancedcell

architecturesbeyondPERChasbeenthechange

ofwafertype,fromp-typeton-type.Evenwithin

n-type,thereareafewspecialrequisitesforevery

celltechnology.ThewaferqualityrequirementsforTOPConaresomewhatinthemiddleofHJTandBC.

ElectricalParameters

Thepreferredresistivityforn-typewafersusedin

TOPConistypicallybetween1to3Ω·cm,which

providesagoodbalancebetweenminimizing

recombinationlossesandmaintainingadequate

conductivity.Carrierlifetimeisanotherkeyparameter,withhigh-performancelinestargetingbulklifetimesabove1,000μs,whileitisevenexceeding2,000μsinafewcases,aspiringforhighVoc.Thenextiteminthelististheoxygencontent,whichisgenerally

keptbelow10-12ppm.Additionally,carboncontentisalsomonitored,typicallymaintainedbelow1ppm,

asexcessivecarboncanleadtounwanteddefectcomplexesduringhigh-temperatureprocessing.

TheseelectricalqualitymetricscollectivelyformthefoundationforreliableandefficientTOPConcell

manufacturing.

PhysicalParameters

Whilewaferthicknessmaycometomindfirstamongthephysicalparameters,itisnotthehottopicinthecaseofTOPCon.Theaveragewaferthicknessis

between125μmand140μm,whichisexpectedtogodownto110μminthenext5yearsaccordingtoCPIAsroadmap.WhatmattersmoreforTOPConisthedimensionsofthewafer.

RectangularWafers

Inrecentyears,waferdimensionshaveagain

becomeafocalpointinPVmanufacturing.Nowit

isnotaboutincreasingthesize,butrathermoving

awayfromthetraditionalsquareorpseudo-squaretorectangularsizes.ThisisfacilitatedbythefactthateveryPVmoduleisbuiltonslicedsiliconsubstrates.Thus,ratherthancuttingawaferorcellinto2

equalparts,dividingthemintoasymmetricalpiecesstillenablesthemtomeettherequiredmodule

dimensionsandcorrespondingpowerratingsfor

differentapplications.Thisalsogivesmodulemakersthefreedomtoachievethevoltageandpower

requirementsforaspecificapplicationbycarefullyselectingthesizeandcountofcellstrips.

Companiesarealsofindingtheirownsweetspotforawaferdimension.Afewcompaniesareevenadoptingmorerectangularwaferdimensionsthan

TypicalWaferSpecificationsforTOPCon

Parameter

n-typeTaiRaywafer(LONGi)

n-typeTOPConwafer

DopingElement

Antimony

Phosphorus

Resistivity(Ω·cm)

0.71.4

0.61.6

MinorityCarrierLifetime(μs)

≥1000

≥1000

InterstitialOxygen(ppma)

≤12

≤12

SubstitutionalCarbon(ppma)

≤1

≤1

Source:InfoLink

Balancedresistivity:TheresistivityforTOPConwaferstypicallyrangefrom1to3Ω·cm,strikingabalancebetweenlowrecombinationlossesandsufficientconductivity.

12TaiyangNews|Cell&ModuleTechnologyTrends

onetobuildmodulesfordifferentapplications.Forexample,Astronergyusesdimensionsof182×210mm(commonlyreferredtoas210R)foritsmodulesaimedatutilityapplicationsand182.2×191.6mm(191R)forDGapplicationmodules.JASolarnotedthatatleast3differentwafersizesarerequiredtocatertotheindustrymainstream54,66,72,and

78cellmodulelayouts.JASolartackledthisissuesmartlybyusingonlyonewafersize,i.e.,182×199mm.Thespecialtyofthiswaferisthatitcanbecutindifferentwaystocreatemodulesofdifferentsizeswhilemaintainingthesamewidthof1,134mm.Forexample,whenthewaferiscutalongthelonger

side,itcanbeusedtocreatea72-cellmodulewith

dimensionsof2,465×1,134mm.Whenthesamewaferiscutinto2asymmetricalpiecesof105mmand94mm,itcanbeusedtocreate66,72,and54cellmoduleswithdimensionsof2,382×1,134mm,2,333×1,134mm,and1,762×1,134mm.

Quotinganinternalmarketstudyreport,Trinasolarsharedinsightsintotheglobalcellcapacityand

estimatedproductionfigures,focusingonwafer

dimensionsfor2023and2024atthe

TaiyangNews

HighEfficiencySolarTechnologiesConference

.

Thestudyhighlightedthatthemajorrectangularcelldimensionsare210R,191×182mm(191R),and199×182mm(199R).Bytheendof2023,

JASolar’sDifferentModuleFormatsDerivedfromOneWaferSize

WaferSize

ModuleLayout

Module

Length

HalfCellSize

Module

Power

Dimensions

(mm)

182×199mm

72-Cell

2,465mm

99.5×182mm

630W

2,465×1,134mm

66-Cell

2,278mm

99.5×182mm

580W

2,278×1,134mm

182×188mm

72-Cell

2,333mm

94×182mm

595W

2,333×1,134mm

54-Cell

1,762mm

94×182mm

450W

1,762×1,134mm

182×210mm

66-Cell

2,382mm

105×182mm

610W

2,382×1,134mm

Source:TaiyangNews2025

Source:JASolar

Onesizefitsall:JASolarsmartlyusesonewafersizeof182×199mmtoproduce3differentsizesofrectangularwafersizesthat,inturn,allowittomake5differentmoduleconfigurations.

Cell&ModuleTechnologyTrends|TaiyangNews13

WaferSizeVariantsbyLeadingPVManufacturers

Company

WaferSize(mm)

Astronergy

182×210;210×210;182.2×191.6;182×182

DASSolar

182.2×191.6;182×210

JASolar

182×199

JinkoSolar

182.3×183.5;182×186.8

LONGi

182.2×191.6

Risen

210×210

Tongwei

TOPCon:210×210;182×210;182×183.75;HJT:210×210

Trinasolar

182×210;210×210

Source:TaiyangNews2025

LengthandWaferDimensionsAcrossModuleLayouts

Manufacturer

HSAT

DAT

54-Cell

1,722mm

182×182mm

182×183.75mm

182×185.3mm

48-Cell

1,762mm

182×186.8mm

182×210mm

66-Cell

2,384mm

182×210mm

72-Cell

2,278mm

182×182mm

182×183.75mm

182×185.3mm

2,333mm

182×186.8mm

78-Cell

2,465mm

182×182mm

182×183.75mm

Source:TaiyangNews2025

182×185.3mm

Unityindiversity:Companiesarefindingadifferentrationaletonarrowdowntoaparticularwaferdimensionthatledtodifferentwafersizes,buttheyallagreedtosticktoasetofmoduledimensions

globalrectangularcellproductioncapacitywas

expectedtohit84GW,with14.5GWofitreflectedinactualproduction.Lookingaheadatthattime,thecapacitywasprojectedtosurgeto420GWin2024,accountingforover80%ofthecellmarketshare.

Rectangularcellproductionwasexpectedtorangebetween200GWand300GWin2024.Andas

expected,mostoftheleadingsuppliersintroduced

modulesbasedonrectangularwafersin2024.

2.2Cells

Morethanbeingbasedonn-typewafers,thecruxoftheTOPConcellstructureliesinatrueandnext-levelpassivation.Apartfromcoveringthesurfacepassivationrequirements,itisalsoaimedat

14TaiyangNews|Cell&ModuleTechnologyTrends

addressingonemainshortcomingassociatedwithprior-artcellstructures.Metalcontactsformedinthepredecessorarchitecturesarehighlyrecombination-activeandcauselosses.Thiscanbeavoidedby

electronicallyseparatingcontactsfromtheabsorberbyinsertingawiderbandgaplayer.TOPConis

nothingbutadaptingthistechniquetotherearsideofthecell.

Efficiency

Theeffortisworthit.It’sastonishingtolookatthe

numberofannouncementsmadeaboutefficiency

progressbyleadingmanufacturersatseveral

ofTaiyangNews'virtualevents;thetablebelow

providesaniceoverview.Severalcompanieshad

alreadyannouncedreachingefficiencylevelsof

closeto25.5%byH1-2023,closeto26%bythe

endof2023,andbeyondthe26.5%levelbytheendof2024.However,thesehighefficiencylevelsmaynotbeequivalenttointernationalcalibratedvalues.Aseniortechnologyleaderataleadingproductionhousesaidthereisatleasta0.56%overestimationofefficiencyinChina,especiallyduetothe

calibrationmethod.Ontheotherhand,companiesareusingthecellefficiencymetriconlyforinternalevaluationandbenchmarking,andmoduleefficiencyisconsideredthetruemetricforevaluation.

However,ITRPVandCPIAgiveanestimatefor

stabilizedcellefficiencies.Asshowninthegraph,

CPIAestimatesthattheaverageTOPConcell

efficiencyhasincreasedfrom25.4%in2024to

25.7%thisyear,andisexpectedtoimproveby0.9percentagepointsinthenext5yearsto26.6%.A

littleontheconservativeside,ITRPVestimatesthattheefficiencyfor2025isat25.5%andwilltakeonly2yearstoimproveby0.5percentagepointstoreach26%in2027,butanother8yearsforthenext0.5%absoluteimprovement.

TOPConProcessing

Howdidthetechnologygetthere?Theessence

oftheTOPConprocesscentersonpassivation,

specificallyfocusingontherearsurfaceengineeringofann-typebasewafer.Thisinvolvesapplying

anoptimalpassivationscheme,whichincludes

anano-scaletunnelingoxidelayertoppedwith

apolysiliconlayerthatisthendoped.Forfront

surfacepassivation,TOPConcellsrequirealayerofaluminumoxidecoveredbysiliconnitride.Therearpassivationstackistypicallyappliedusingeither

low-pressurechemicalvapordeposition(LPCVD)

orplasma-enhancedchemicalvapordeposition

Source:TaiyangNews2025

(PECVD),whilesomeprocessesalsoutilizephysicalvapordeposition(PVD).Additionally,thecell

EfficiencyAnnouncementsforTOPCon

Parameter

H1-2023

H2-2023

H2-2024

LabLevel

MassPro-duction

Average

LabLevel

MassPro-duction

Average

LabLevel

MassPro-duction

Average

JinkoSolar

26.40%

25.40%

26.89%

25.80%

-

-

DASSolar

26.24%

25.30%

26.33%

25.90%

-

26.60%

Trinasolar

26.20%

25.50%

-

-

26.58%

-

Astronergy

-

25.60%

-

26%

-

26.90%

JASolar

-

25.30%

-

26%

-

26.80%

Jolywood

26.70%

-

-

26%

-

-

SolarSpace

-

-

-

25.30%

-

-

TongweiSolar

-

25.50%

-

26.10%

-

26.90%

JTPV

-

-

-

-

26.09%

-

Fabsurpasseslabin2years:Withinjust2years,massproductionefficienciesforTOPConhaveexceededtheirlab-levelperformance.

Cell&ModuleTechnologyTrends|TaiyangNews15

16TaiyangNews|Cell&ModuleTechnologyTrends

AnnouncedTOPConMassProductionEfficiencies

27.5

26.9

26.926.8

27

26.6

E?ciency(%)

26.5

26.1

26

26

26

25.9

25.8

26

25.6

25.525.5

25.4

25.3

25.3

25.5

25.3

25

24.5

Astronergy

DASSolar

JASolar

JinkoSolar

Tongwei

TrinaSolar

Astronergy

DASSolar

JASolar

JinkoSolar

Jolywood

SolarSpace

Tongwei

Astronergy

DASSolar

JASolar

Tongwei

Source:TaiyangNews2025

H1-2023H2-2023H2-2024

Highclaims:Thoughcellefficienciesareonlyusedforinternalevaluation,theclaimedlevelsofTOPConareveryhigh,closeto27%asoftheendoflastyear.

EstimatedCellEfficiencyProgressofTOPCon

27

26.6

26.5

26.426.5

E?ciency(%)

26.2

26

26

26

25.7

25.4

25.5

25.5

25

2024

2026

2025

2027

202820302035

CPIAITRPVGraphTaiyangNews;SourceCPIA,ITRPV

Along-termmismatch:WhileCPIAandITRPVprojectionsforTOPConefficiencyarecloseinthenearterm,theirlong-termforecastsdivergesignificantly.

Cell&ModuleTechnologyTrends|TaiyangNews17

technologyincorporatesthermalprocessingsteps,suchasborondiffusion.

Beyondtherearsurfaceengineering,many

leadingcompaniespresentedtheirlossanalysis

simulationresultsatseveralconferenceshostedbyTaiyangNews,whichindicateareasofimprovementarerelatedtopassivationonthefront,rear,andbulk.Thatessentiallyindicatesoptimizationrequirementsintheareaofrecombinationincontactandnon-

contactregionsofbothp+aswellasn+surfaces

andp+holetransportregions.Infac