1、Investigating Language as a Cognitive Phenomenon,Zhang Ren School of Foreign Studies/Institute of Linguistics, Nanjing University,Linguistics: scientific study of language. 1. What is language after all? Immediate reaction to the question?,(A) Usual answers (commonsense notions),(a) “語言是進行思維和傳遞信息的工具

2、。是人類保存認識成果的載體?！?Q-properties of language derivable from thought? -To give the barest of definition,language is a means of verbal communication.It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. (Hu Zhuanglin et als coursebook) Cf. 語言學幫助提高交際能力，外語水平 =Q: differences be

3、tween cars, guns, pens and language as tools? =Q: where is the tool so that we go = resultant abstraction can be further abstracted, with the result represented by symbols (e.g. N),(4) Summary & implications: what is language?,(a) Strategy 2: looking at properties of linguistic behavior People know

4、different creativity pattern & rule languages (information encoded in brains (=knowledge, I-language), waiting to be discovered, not invented.,Nature of I-language,(1) Most generally, as knowledge of language stored in mind/brain (various alternative terms: competence, (mental) grammar, etc.) (2) Ma

5、instream understanding: I-language as a computational system, i.e. explicit rules applied to symbols (standing for equivalence classes). (3) Three “Is”: individual, internal (I-language as internal to each person), intentional (capturing generalizations by rules & equivalence classes). -UG (Language

6、 Faculty): shared properties of all I-languages. ultimate goal,(C) “I-systems” in other cognitive faculties,Functioning of visual system: constructing visual experience of illusory shapes. -Q: is there a real triangle in the following figure?,Cognitive solution,The human visual system interprets cer

7、tain stimuli in such a way as to construct a represention of a triangle. i.e. not a physically real triangle. Similar ability in bees: bees treat an illusory shape in the same way as real marking (strip in a certain orientation) of route to sugar source.,Grammar (I-system) for vision?,Q: visual perc

8、eption must study the kind of I-system underlying the experience. =also two components: represention (shading, textures, edges, etc), and rules for calculations or inferences (for detecting the partially occluded ellipse).,2. Knowledge of language: three questions,Three aspects of knowledge,Nonlingu

9、istic knowledge,Knowledge of Language: Three Questions -Linguistic theory studies the first question, but the other two are relevant to our answer.,3. How to study I-language?,A problem: knowledge of language is tacit, subconscious. Consider: Oliver expected to pay him. (Payer: Oliver. Payee: him, a

10、 different person) I wonder who Oliver expected to pay him. (Payer: who. Payee: him, either Oliver or someone else) I wonder who Oliver expected to pay. (Payer: Oliver. Payee: who) Q: how do we get these judgments? What kind of knowledge may be involved? often not covered in traditional grammar book

11、s.,Cf. Ideas of Sigmund Freud,Unconscious functioning of mind: central for cognition.,Strategy: from external to internal (black box problem),Figuring out whats inside the mind on the basis of what can be observed from the outside. What is outside: Childrens exposure to speech data, various linguist

12、ic behaviors (sentences and expressions produced, judgements of these),Steps for doing scientific (empirical) research,Step I: Data collection and observation. Step II: Make a hypothesis to cover the first set of data. (precise formulation) -to be constrained by ones theoretical model. Step III: Che

13、ck the hypothesis with more data. Step IV: Revise the hypothesis, if necessary. Step V (optional): comparing (checking) alternative hypotheses.,Ex: partial reduplication in Samoan,Nice place for linguistic fieldwork!,(a) Data set,Samoan verbs: SG PL nofo she sits nonofo they sit =(b) Hypothesis: plu

14、ral rule adds prefix no- to the singular. =(c) checking with more data moe momoe sleep Revised Hypothesis: plural rule repeats 1st syllable. =(d) Checking with more data alofa alolofa love New hypothesis: repeating the first CV string . =(e) Falsified with final checking: savali savavali walk maliu

15、maliliu die Final revision: copying the second to last syll of singular.,More precise presentation of the rule,Differences with Warlpiri: full word or a syllable copied, but both involving the same computational process. =Open to alternative formulation of rules.,More complex areas of grammar,Distri

16、bution & interpretation of reflexives and pronouns (a) Bill is perplexed. John kissed himself. (b) Bill is perplexed. *Mary kissed himself. (c) Bill is perplexed. John kissed him. (d) Bill is perplexed. *Himself kissed John. (e) Bill is perplexed. He kissed John. =What rules speakers use in constructing these utterances?,4. Debates: whats in the mind?,Challenge to mainstream view of I-language: Cognitive Linguistics (1980s) (1) Principled line between knowledge of