1、語 言 學(xué) 概 論 linguistics,南陽師院文學(xué)院,Requirments and evaluation the curriculum,Mental preparation be calm be patient Learning methods Analysis 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the writte

2、n, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.,共同語和方言Lingua Franca VS Dialects,Lingua Franca/ Common language A lingua franca (English pronunciation: /lgw frak/) also called a bridge language, or vehicular language, is a language systematically (as opposed to occasionally, or casual

3、ly) used to make communication possible between persons not sharing a native language, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both native languages.2,南陽師院文學(xué)院,Whereas a vernacular language is used as a native language in a single speaker community, a lingua franca goes beyond the bo

4、undaries of its original community, and is used as a second language for communication between groups. For example, English is a vernacular in the United Kingdom, but is used as a vehicular language (i.e., a lingua franca) in the Philippines.,南陽師院文學(xué)院,International auxiliary languages such as Esperan

5、to have not had a high level of adoption globally, so they cannot be described as global lingua francas, although they play this role in various contexts.,南陽師院文學(xué)院,二、什么是語言學(xué),是研究語言及其相關(guān)問題的科學(xué)。 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 基礎(chǔ)研究basic research 具體語言學(xué)和普通語言學(xué) 歷時語言學(xué)和共時語言學(xué)

6、應(yīng)用研究applied research 交叉研究cross-over research,第二節(jié) 語言的功能 Functions of language,The Referential Function指稱功能 The Expressive (alternatively called “emotive” or “affective”) Function表達(dá)功能 The Conative Function意動功能 The Poetic Function 詩學(xué)功能 The Phatic Function 交際功能 The Metalingual (alternatively called “met

7、alinguistic” or “reflexive”) Function元語言功能,The Referential Function corresponds to the factor of Message and describes a situation, object or mental state. The descriptive statements of the referential function can consist of both definite descriptions and deictic words, e.g. The autumn leaves have

8、all fallen now.,The Expressive (alternatively called emotive or affective) Function relates to the Addresser (sender) and is best exemplified by interjections and other sound changes that do not alter the denotative meaning of an utterance but do add information about the Addressers (speakers) inter

9、nal state, e.g. Wow, what a view!,南陽師院文學(xué)院,The Conative Function engages the Addressee (receiver) directly and is best illustrated by vocatives and imperatives, e.g. Tom! Come inside and eat!,南陽師院文學(xué)院,The Poetic Function focuses on the message for its own sake(the code itself, and how it is used) and

10、is the operative function in poetry as well as slogans. 玲瓏塔，塔玲瓏。玲瓏寶塔十三層。 繞口令,The Phatic Function is language for the sake of interaction and is therefore associated with the Contact factor. The Phatic Function can be observed in greetings and casual discussions of the weather, particularly with stra

11、ngers. It also provides the keys to open, maintain, verify or close the communication channel: Hello?, Ok?, Hummm, Bye.,南陽師院文學(xué)院,The Metalingual (alternatively called metalinguistic or reflexive) Function is the use of language (what Jakobson calls Code) to discuss or describe itself. (All this artic

12、le is an example of metalinguistic Function).,南陽師院文學(xué)院,第三節(jié) 語言規(guī)劃language planing,Language planningis a deliberate effort to influence the function, structure, or acquisition oflanguages orlanguage varietywithin aspeech community.It is often associated withgovernmentplanning, but is also used by a vari

13、ety ofnon-governmental organizations, such as grass-roots organizations and even individuals.,南陽師院文學(xué)院,第三節(jié) 語言規(guī)劃 language planing,Language planningis a deliberate effort to influence the function, structure, or acquisition oflanguagesorlanguage varietywithin aspeech community.It is often associated wi

14、thgovernmentplanning, but is also used by a variety ofnon-governmental organizations, such as grass-roots organizations and even individuals.,南陽師院文學(xué)院,一、Status planning語言地位規(guī)劃,Status planning is the allocation or reallocation of a language or variety to functional domains within a society, thus affect

15、ing the status, or standing, of a language. ten functional domains in language planning:,南陽師院文學(xué)院,ten functional domains,1.Official - An official language functions as a legally appropriate language for all politically and culturally representative purposes on a nation wide basis.Often, the official

16、function of a language is specified in aconstitution. 2.Provincial - A provincial language functions as an official language for a geographic area smaller than a nation, typically aprovinceorregion(e.g. French inQuebec),南陽師院文學(xué)院,3.Wider communication - A language of wider communication is a language

17、that may be official or provincial, but more importantly, functions as a medium of communication across language boundaries within a nation (e.g.Hindiin India;Swahili languageinEast Africa) 4.International - An international language functions as a medium of communication across national boundaries

18、(e.g. English),南陽師院文學(xué)院,5.Capital - A capital language functions as a prominent language in and around a nationalcapital(e.g.Dutchand French inBrussels布魯塞爾) 6.Group - A group language functions as a conventional language among the members of a single cultural or ethnic group (e.g. Hebrew希伯來語 amongst

19、the Jews),南陽師院文學(xué)院,7.Educational - An educational language functions as a medium of instruction inprimaryandsecondaryschools on a regional or national basis 8.School subject - A school subject language is a language that is taught as a subject in secondary school orhigher education(e.g.Latinand Ancie

20、nt Greekin English schools),南陽師院文學(xué)院,9.Literary - A literary language functions as a language forliteraryorscholarlypurposes (Ancient Greek) 10.Religious - A religious language functions as a language for the ritual purposes of a particular religion (e.g. Latin for theLatin Rite拉丁禮within the Roman Ca

21、tholic 天主教的Church;Arabicfor the reading of theQuran古蘭經(jīng)),南陽師院文學(xué)院,Corpus planning,theprescriptiveintervention in the forms of a language, whereby planning decisions are made to engineer changes in the structure of the language.Corpus planning activities often arise as the result of beliefs about the a

22、dequacy of the form of a language to serve desired functions.Unlike status planning, which is primarily undertaken by administrators and politicians, corpus planning generally involves planners with greater linguistic expertise.,南陽師院文學(xué)院,Acquisition planning,To decide what languages should be taught

23、within thecurriculum. To determine the amount and quality ofteacher training. To involve localcommunities. To determine what materials will be used and how they will be incorporated intosyllabi. To establish a local and stateassessmentsystem to monitor progress. To determine financialcosts.,南陽師院文學(xué)院,

24、Eleven Language Planning Goals have been recognized : 1.Language Purification prescription of usage in order to preserve the “l(fā)inguistic purity” of language, protect language from foreign influences, and guard against language deviation from within 2.Language Revival the attempt to turn a language w

25、ith few or no surviving native speakers back into a normal means of communication 保護方言上海公交車 希伯來語,南陽師院文學(xué)院,3.Language Reform deliberate change in specific aspects of language, likeorthography,spelling, orgrammar, in order to facilitate use 4.Language Standardization the attempt to garnerprestigefor a

26、regional language or dialect, transforming it into one that is accepted as the major language, orstandard language, of aregion,南陽師院文學(xué)院,5.Language Spread the attempt to increase the number of speakers of one language at the expense of another 6.Lexical Modernization word creation or adaptation 7.Term

27、inology Unification development of unified terminologies, primarily in technical domains 8.Stylistic Simplification simplification of language usage inlexicon, grammar, and style. That includes modifying the use of language in social and formal contexts.,南陽師院文學(xué)院,9.Interlingual Communication facilita

28、tion of linguistic communication between members of distinct speech communities 10.Language Maintenance preservation of the use of a groups native language as a first orsecond languagewhere pressures threaten or cause a decline in the status of the language 11.Auxiliary-Code Standardization standard

29、ization of marginal, auxiliary aspects of language such as signs for the deaf, place names, or rules of transliterationandtranscription注音法,南陽師院文學(xué)院,第四節(jié) 語言學(xué)簡史History of linguistics,Early grammarians The formal study of language began in India with Pini巴尼尼, the 5th century BC grammarian who formulated

30、3,959 rules of Sanskrit梵文 morphology. Pinis systematic classification of the sounds of Sanskrit梵文 into consonants and vowels, word classes, such as nouns and verbs, was the first known instance of its kind.,南陽師院文學(xué)院,In the Middle East Sibawayh () made a detailed description of Arabic in 760 AD in his

31、 monumental work, Al-kitab fi al-nahw ( , The Book on Grammar), the first known author to distinguish between sounds and phonemes (sounds as units of a linguistic system).,南陽師院文學(xué)院,Early interest in language in the West was a part of philosophy, not of grammatical description. The first insights into

32、 semantic theory were made by Plato in his Cratylus dialogue, where he argues that words denote concepts that are eternal and exist in the world of ideas. This work is the first to use the word etymology to describe the history of a words meaning.,南陽師院文學(xué)院,南陽師院文學(xué)院,（三）語言學(xué)研究的分類,第二章 語言結(jié)構(gòu)language structu

33、re,語言的層級和層面 組合關(guān)系和聚合關(guān)系 語言結(jié)構(gòu)的共性和個性 語言結(jié)構(gòu)類型,南陽師院文學(xué)院,Company Logo,（一）語言的層級language hierarchy,符號層,語素morpheme、詞word 、句子sentence,音位phoneme 音節(jié)syllble,語言層級的特點,質(zhì)的區(qū)別 量的區(qū)別 組合規(guī)則,Company Logo,（二）語言的層面,語言的層面,1.語音層 小王明天去北京。 乒乓球兩塊五十個 我們都三十歲了。 a.我們每個人都三十歲了。b.我們已經(jīng)三十歲了。 2.語義層 a.他多了個包袱。 b.他連我都不怕。 他不怕我。 我不怕他。,3.語匯層 a.我去。他

34、去。 b,形式變了。形勢變了。 他非常尊敬師長。 4.語法層 a.我要烤紅薯。 b.哥哥和姐姐的同學(xué)都走了。,5.語用層 a.指示信息 我怕你。 b.語用含義 （三）層級與層面的關(guān)系 1.角度和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)不同。層級是根據(jù)語言單位的大小和級別來分的；層面是根據(jù)語言的結(jié)構(gòu)要素及其功能來分的。 2.二者之間有交叉,二、組合關(guān)系和聚合關(guān)系,Sequential(syntagmatic) relations 組合關(guān)系 The linear ordering of the words and the phrases within a sentence. Substitutional(paradigmatic)

35、relations (聚合關(guān)系) If the words or phrases in a sentence can be replaced by words and phrases outside the sentence and the resulting sentence is still grammatical, then we say the replacing forms and replaced forms have paradigmatic relations.,Sequential(syntagmatic) relations 組合關(guān)系,又叫結(jié)構(gòu)關(guān)系 新生明天開始上課。 組合

36、關(guān)系來自于規(guī)則 組合關(guān)系是有層次的。,Substitutional(paradigmatic) relations (聚合關(guān)系),聚合關(guān)系 具有相同組合功能的語言單位之間的關(guān)系。 1.張三喝酒。 2.李四看書。 3.王五賣瓜。 a.具有聚合關(guān)系的語言單位之間，一般能互相替換 b.不能替換，但它們有相同的組合功能。 c.聚合類,三、語言結(jié)構(gòu)的共性和個性universality and individuality,語言的結(jié)構(gòu)面貌，在一定程度上受制于人類的生理、心理機制和社會生活的狀況。 語言的共性 語音方面 語義 語匯 語法,語言的個性,語音 1.音位的個數(shù)不同； 2.音位的組合方式不同 3.音變

37、方式不同 語義 1.不同語言之間很少有詞義完全相等的詞 2.語義系統(tǒng)不同 3.詞義搭配不同,共性 generality 1. an idea or conclusion having general application 2. the quality of being general or widespread or having general applicability similarity universality the quality of being universal; existing everywhere general character,個性 individuality

38、 心理 personality character selfhood selfdom,語匯 1.造詞方式不同 2.語匯系統(tǒng)不同 3.熟語面貌差別很大 4.語形聚類差別很大 語法 1.語法形式差別很大 2.詞類有所不同 3.句法構(gòu)造方面，語序有所不同,四、語言結(jié)構(gòu)類型,根據(jù)語法特征，從詞法和句法兩個不同的角度，劃分若干基本的形態(tài)類型和句法類型。 形態(tài)類型 根據(jù)語言中形態(tài)變化是否豐富，以及形態(tài)變化的不同方式，將人類的語言劃分為四種形態(tài)類型 （詞法類型） 句法類型 根據(jù)句子的主要成分主語、謂語、賓語的位置來分,（一）形態(tài)類型,詞根語 radical language/isolating langua

39、ge 屈折語 inflectional/fusional language 黏著語 agglutinative language 編插語incorporating language 分析語 analyltic 綜合語 synthetic 分析-綜合語,南陽師院文學(xué)院,（二）句法類型,SVO SOV VSO VOS OVS,南陽師院文學(xué)院,（三）句法類型學(xué) linguistic typology,主要任務(wù)：對人類的不同語言及方言的結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)的異同進(jìn)行比較和分類，重點揭示人類語言結(jié)構(gòu)的普遍性。 第一階段 洪堡特和薩丕爾 各種基本的形態(tài)類型和結(jié)構(gòu)類型 第二階段 格林伯格 主要跟語序有關(guān)的語法普遍現(xiàn)象

40、第三階段 科姆里和克羅夫特 形成各種語言結(jié)構(gòu)特征的原因和機制,南陽師院文學(xué)院,第二節(jié) sounds of speech,一、語音和語音學(xué),（一）語音的性質(zhì) 生理屬性 物理屬性 心理屬性 社會屬性,南陽師院文學(xué)院,1.生理屬性,The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 The oral cavity 口腔 The nasal cavity 鼻腔 其他部位：Lips唇1, teeth齒2, teeth ridge (alveolus)齒齦3, hard palate硬腭4, soft palate (velum)軟腭5, uvula小舌6, tip of tongue舌尖7, blade

41、of tongue舌面8, back of tongue舌后9, vocal cords聲帶10,南陽師院文學(xué)院,2.語音的聲學(xué)性質(zhì),音高 pitch 頻率 聲調(diào)和語調(diào) 音強 intensity of sound 振幅 輕重音 音長 length 時間長短 長短音 音質(zhì) tone colour頻譜形式 各種音素 元音和輔音,南陽師院文學(xué)院,3.語音的心理性質(zhì),聽話人形成的聲音形象與客觀的聲波形式并非一一對應(yīng)。 篩選、比較和抽象分類，將有共同區(qū)別特征的不同聲音形式歸為一類。 客觀聲音形式的音高、音強、音長和音質(zhì)的絕對值的差別對于感知語音形式來說并不太重要，重要的是不同語音形式之間相對值的差別。,

42、南陽師院文學(xué)院,4.語音的社會性質(zhì),聽話人對語音的感知及其所形成的聲音形象，主要不是取決于個人的發(fā)音器官和聽覺神經(jīng)的狀況和功能，而是取決于聽話人所處的社會環(huán)境，以及有社會環(huán)境所決定的語音區(qū)別功能。 對語音進(jìn)行分析歸類時，受制于頭腦中原有的語音分類系統(tǒng)，而這種語音分類系統(tǒng)是人們長期的語言交際活動中形成的。,南陽師院文學(xué)院,Phonetics語音學(xué),Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human speech, orin the case of sign languages手語

43、the equivalent aspects of sign. It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds or signs (phones): their physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiological status. Phonology, on the other hand, is concerned with the abstract, grammatical characte

44、rization of systems of sounds or signs.,Branch of phonetics,1.Articulatory phonetics生理語音學(xué)、發(fā)音語音學(xué) 2.Acoustic phonetics聲學(xué)語音學(xué)、音響語音學(xué) 3.Auditory phonetics: 心理語音學(xué)、聽覺語音學(xué) These areas are inter-connected through the common mechanism of sound, such as wavelength (pitch), amplitude振幅, and harmonics. 4.Phonology

45、音系學(xué) 5.Experimental phonetics,articulatory phonetics 發(fā)音語音學(xué),The field of articulatory phonetics is a subfield of phonetics. In studying articulation, phoneticians explain how humans produce speech sounds via the interaction of different physiological structures. 古印度 Consonants and Vowels. 古希臘 The Phoe

46、nicians are credited as the first to create a phonetic writing system, from which all major modern phonetic alphabets are now derived 創(chuàng)立元音字母 place and manner of articulation,IPA,The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is used as the basis for the phonetic transcription of speech. It is based on th

47、e Latin alphabet and is able to transcribe most features of speech such as consonants, vowels, and suprasegmental features. Every documented phoneme available within the known languages in the world is assigned its own corresponding symbol.,Acoustic phonetics聲學(xué)語音學(xué),Acoustic phonetics聲學(xué)語音學(xué): the study

48、of the physical transmission of speech sounds from the speaker to the listener. acoustic phonetics is concerned with acoustics of speech: The spectro-temporal properties of the sound waves produced by speech, such as their frequency, amplitude, and harmonic structure.,Auditory phonetics心理語音學(xué),Auditor

49、y phonetics: the study of the reception and perception of speech sounds by the listener 最近二三十年才形成。 以什么語音單位為感知單位？ 按什么順序感知各個語音單位？ 怎樣將接收到的語音信息與語言符號進(jìn)行匹配，從而實現(xiàn)語言的理解？,Phonology音系學(xué),音系學(xué)又稱音位學(xué)，研究語音的社會屬性，即根據(jù)語音區(qū)別不同語言符號的社會交際功能來研究各種語言的語音系統(tǒng)。 各種語言系統(tǒng)中有多少個音位？ 每個音位有哪些音位變體？ 音位之間的區(qū)別特征有哪些？ 音位和音位怎樣組合成音節(jié)的？ 語音組合時發(fā)生怎樣的變化（韻律變化

50、和語流音變） 、,南陽師院文學(xué)院,Phonology音系學(xué),Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. It has traditionally focused largely on study of the systems of phonemes in particular languages (and is therefore also called phonemics, or phonematics), but it may

51、also cover any linguistic analysis either at a level beneath the word (including syllable, onset and rhyme, articulatory gestures, articulatory features, mora, etc.) or at all levels of language where sound is considered to be structured for conveying linguistic meaning. Phonology also includes the

52、study of equivalent organizational systems in sign languages.,南陽師院文學(xué)院,Phonology is often distinguished from phonetics. While phonetics concerns the physical production, acoustic transmission and perception of the sounds of speech,phonology describes the way sounds function within a given language or

53、 across languages to encode meaning. Nikolai Trubetzkoy, 1920s,南陽師院文學(xué)院,Experimental phonetics實驗語音學(xué),早期又名儀器語音學(xué) instrumental phonetics,南陽師院文學(xué)院,二、音素和音位phoneme,A phoneme is a basic unit of a languages phonology, which is combined with other phonemes to form meaningful units such as words or morphemes. Th

54、e phoneme can be described as The smallest contrastive linguistic unit which may bring about a change of meaning.In this way the difference in meaning between the English words kill and kiss is a result of the exchange of the phoneme /l/ for the phoneme /s/. Two words that differ in meaning through

55、a contrast of a single phoneme are called minimal pairs.,南陽師院文學(xué)院,1.什么是音素,是根據(jù)語音的自然屬性劃分出來的最小語音單位。 從聲學(xué)性質(zhì)來看，音素是從音質(zhì)角度劃分出來的最小語音單位； 從生理性質(zhì)來看，一個發(fā)音動作形成一個音素 音素一般用國際音標(biāo)來標(biāo)記，用 標(biāo)明。 音素一般分為元音和輔音consonant and vowel,南陽師院文學(xué)院,元音 vowel,In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as an English ah! or oh! o, p

56、ronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! , where there is a constriction or closure at some point along the vocal tract. A vowel is also understood to be syllabic: an equivalent

57、 open but non-syllabic sound is called a semivowel,semivowel,In phonetics and phonology, a semivowel (or glide滑音) is a sound, such as English /w/ or /j/, that is phonetically similar to a vowel sound but functions as the syllable boundary rather than as the nucleus of a syllable.,南陽師院文學(xué)院,元音 vowel,南陽

58、師院文學(xué)院,Consonant輔音,Each spoken consonant can be distinguished by several phonetic features: The manner of articulation The place of articulation,南陽師院文學(xué)院,The manner of articulation,Stop（plosive）爆破音 p,b,t,d,k,g Nasal 鼻音 m,n, Fricative 摩擦音 f,v,s,z,h Approximant 近音 j,w,r Lateral 邊音 l Trill 顫音 r Tap and f

59、lap閃音 Affricate 摩擦音,南陽師院文學(xué)院,The place of articulation,Bilabial雙唇 Labiodental唇齒 Dental齒音 Alveolar齒齦音 Postalveolar齒齦后音 Retroflex卷舌音 Palatal上顎音 Velar軟腭音 Uvular小舌音,南陽師院文學(xué)院,Pharyngeal喉音 Glottal聲門音 p voiceless bilabial stop b voiced bilabial stop i: high front tense unrounded vowel i high front lax unrounded vowel,南陽師院文學(xué)院,南陽師院文學(xué)院,(二)phoneme音位,A phoneme is a basic unit of a languages phonology, which is combined with other phonemes to form meaningful units such as words or morphemes. The phoneme can be described as The smallest c