1、英語說明文的段落及拓展,按文體分類，英語文章主要有四大類：說明文（Exposition）、議論文（Argument）、描寫文（Description）、記敘文（Narrative）。,說明文是向讀者說明和解釋人和事物的文章。 教科書、雜志文章、新聞社論等都屬于說明文。通過說明文，可以提供知識、解釋事實、介紹發(fā)展過程。說明的對象比較廣泛，可以是觀點、概念、事實，也可以是原因、步驟、 方法、過程、體系等。在實際寫作中，還可以對解釋或說明的對象進行一定的分析。,說明性段落的基本原則： 首先，明確自己寫作的目的，即表達(dá)什么樣的中心思想。 其次，要使段落中的所有語句都與該段落的主題思想密切相關(guān)。（要保證

2、主題思想合乎邏輯的發(fā)展，條理清楚，集中表達(dá)作者的思路和意圖）。,說明性段落的基本寫法： 首先，在段首用主題句（topic sentence）點明全段的主題思想。 然后，通過拓展句（supporting sentences）以各種形式的細(xì)節(jié)對主題句所表達(dá)的思想觀點進行闡述和論證。 最后，用強有力的結(jié)尾句（conclusion sentence）結(jié)束段落，幫助讀者回顧或更清楚地理解段落的要點。,段落的拓展方法,1、類比法（Analogy） 2、辯論法（Argument） 3、因果法（Cause and Effect） 4、分類法（Classification） 5、比較與對比法（Compare a

3、nd Contrast） 6、定義分析法（Definition-Analysis） 7、概述法（Summary）,類比法（Analogy）,類比法（Analogy): 以比較熟悉的事物比喻說明一個比較抽象復(fù)雜的概念或事物，有助于讀者的理解。,An analogy is defined as a relation or resemblance existing between two things that are basically different. That is, one thing is like another thing in that they have similar cha

4、racteristics, features, or effects. In short, two things are discussed in terms of each other either to show how much they are alike or to explain how the “complicated” is really the “simple” with advancements.,Application (Does and Donts) Most analogies involve using the common, the simple, or the

5、known to explain the uncommon, the complex, or the unknown. Or, to put it another way, analogy is used when the complex is explained by breaking it down into simple parts with which the reader is familiar. Make sure that “the known” is known to your reader. Most of our everyday inferences are by ana

6、logy-from past experiences to future predictions. Most analogues are brief. Most analogies are found in other forms of writing: Deductive, Inductive, Compare/Contrast. Literary analogies are called similes or metaphors and are used in describing, explaining, arguing, and the like.,5. Dont use figure

7、s of speech and let it go at that. Thus, to say that A is like B is not enough. You must explain why A is like B, what they have in common, and how they differ. 6. Dont use false analogy. That is, make sure the things in the analogy are similar, that the simple is a logical simplification of the com

8、plex or a logical simplification of part of the complex. If things are alike in one way, they may not be alike in others. 7. Dont try to explain the very difficult unless you are familiar with it. 8. Remember that no analogy is exact. The complex is only partially explained by the simple.,The Queen

9、Bee After I pledged a fraternity, I became aware of a type of girl on campus who is highly analogous to the queen bee in a hive. I think the similarities are remarkable.,The queen bee in a hive represents true royalty. Her instincts tell her there can be only one leader in each hive. For this reason

10、, she is quick to destroy or drive away any opposition. All the other bees live to serve her and to keep her well fed and protected. The male bee is of no value except as a mate for the queen. He serves no other purpose, such as producing honey or fighting enemies of the hive, as do the workers and

11、the guard bees. Were it not for the queen, these drones would be killed or banished. The workers supply the queen with honey. The guards protect her with a barbed weapon called a stinger. In short, it appears as though thousands of bees exist solely to serve the queen bee.,Similarly, many sororities

12、 have a queen bee, a girl who represents true royalty. Any sight threat of opposition that might come from the “workers” or the “guards” meets with sudden and sure retaliation. Accordingly, they seldom show any signs of opposing her. Even a brief acquaintance with a sorority leads one to believe tha

13、t all the other girls in the sorority exists to serve their “queen bee.” she gets first choice of the males on campus who are leaders, wealthy athletes, or who have positions of power. These males became her escorts, her dates. Any other male not fitting the above groups is automatically a “drone,”

14、and he is left for the inferior bees to fight over. The workers and the guard bees in the sorority serve the same functions as their counterparts in the hive. They maintain their queens room, her clothing, her reputation, and, frequently, her scholastic standing. They are at her beck and call to ser

15、ve as needed. On the whole, the girls seem to regard their queen with the same respect and awe that the bees regard their queen. Rather than a stinger, however, the girls have an equally pointed and deadly weapon-their tongues. A tongue can paralyze or destroy an enemy as surely as a bees stinger.,A

16、nd so, the next time you are walking past a sorority house and hear a buzzing within, do not think that your ears are playing tricks. You, my friend, have just come across a real, honest-to-goodness, grow-up hive of human bees.,辯論法（Argument）,論證某一正確的觀點、看法和主張或者是批駁某一錯誤的觀點、看法和主張的文章。辯論的目的是闡述思想，說服讀者，使其接受自

17、己的觀點和主張。,An argumentative theme is one that presents and develops reasons that lead to a generalization, or a conclusion, which in turn leads to an application. In order to effectively argue, we should do one of two things: Avoid controversial topics State you are merely presenting the two sides of

18、an argument in order to allow the reader to decide for himself.,Suggestions: In the first paragraph, present the cause, reasons, and history of the controversy. Tell the reader where you stand. If you wish to remain neutral, tell the reader that you are presenting both sides and that she is to make

19、up her own mind. In the second paragraph you can use one of two forms Discuss all of one side. It may take more than one paragraph. Discuss point 1 of each side. If you have chosen sides, tell the reader why your side is the better one. In the conclusion paragraph, if you have chosen sides, reaffirm

20、 that your side is right because of the preceding evidence。 If you remain neutral， tell the reader to decide。,Application (Does and Donts),Argumentative themes in which you take sides are extremely dangerous. Controversial subjects require much thought and research. If you choose a harmless topic, y

21、ou run the danger of writing a series of platitudes. Use familiar subjects-campus politics, school activities, and the like. If you intend to remain neutral, quickly tell the reader that you are going to present both sides and let him make up his mind.,4. No matter what approach you take, you must u

22、se up-to-date facts, figures, charts, quotations, and the like, for both sides. Do not use partial proof if it does not give an accurate account of your source. If you are quoting, be cautious in your use of ellipses, especially if the omitted material changes the meaning of your original source. 5.

23、 Define your terms. Be specific in what you mean by your terms. 6. Avoid generalization by others or by yourself. Also avoid faulty logic, faulty analogies, inadequate presentation of evidence.,7. Avoid trying to disprove all that the opposition claims. Give credit where it is due. An argument that

24、is willing to compromise on some issues is likely to be more fair and reasonable than one that stubbornly says that the opposition is completely wrong.,Speak English! Practically every week there is at least one article in the local newspaper debating whether or not bilingual education is advantageo

25、us to students. This , unfortunately, is not a recent concern. During the sixties and seventies it was fashionable in educational circles to stress an individuals right to retain the language and speech pattern of their native culture. However, many believe bilingual education is a disservice to the

26、 youngsters, for it weakens their ability to express themselves forcefully and accurately in English, the daily language of this country. Even writers such as Richard Rodriguez and William Raspberry, who have a strong interest in retaining the cultural values of their respective minorities, recogniz

27、e the importance of children learning standard English. As Raspberry pointed out in one of his articles, “Standard English marks a person as educated.”,English is, after all, the language of the continental United States, and in order to succeed one must have a good command of standard English. It i

28、s imperative that one develop an ability to read with understanding and insight, to be able to recognize the nuances in phrasing and an authors use of diction and style. Equally important is the reader in effective prose. But perhaps most important is to be able to speak the language, to phrase ones

29、 thoughts so that there is little room for misinterpretation and misunderstanding. All of these skills are difficult to attain, but especially so for the child who is not constantly exposed to the English language.,Although bilingualism has its merits, they are outweighted by its negative impact. St

30、udents who are bilingual tend to rely on their native tongue, the language spoken at home. They tend to think in that language and then translate their thoughts into English, often creating awkward and unidiomatic constructions. The emphasis on the native tongue also is a hindrance to accurate pronu

31、nciation. Many bilingual college students have bemoaned that they were not exposed to English in the home and that they received bilingual education. They have found themselves at a distinct disadvantage throughout their schooling and in the work force. They have found that their difficulties with E

32、nglish have limited their choices.,As such as we like to talk about America being a multiethnic, multicultural, multilingual society, there is no escaping the reality: the language of the country is English, and without mastery of standard English, peoples opportunities and choices are limited. Thei

33、r chances of deriving the full benefits from their education are restricted; their chances of getting into a good college are greatly reduced; their chances of availing themselves of all those opportunities for which a command of English is a prerequisite are nonexistent. In short, educators and par

34、ents who do not insist on children speaking English are doing them a great disservice; they are not preparing them for the future. So let us immerse students in English from day one. Let both teachers and parents stress the importance of speaking English.,因果法（Cause and Effect）,因果法的特點是按事物的因果關(guān)系來論證和說明文

35、章的中心思想。次序上可先因后果，即：先陳述原因后陳述結(jié)果；也可以先果后因，即先陳述結(jié)果后陳述原因?？梢允且灰蛞还?，也可以是一因多果，還可以是因果鏈鎖反應(yīng)，即前面的果成為后面的因。,Application (Does and Donts),Make sure that you have sufficient evidence. If you cannot make definitive statements, then qualify your remarks with words like usually, possibly, it seems, apparently, probably, a

36、nd the like. Do not ignore second and third causes. For instance, a successful fisherman who gets results (“effects”) is successful for many causes, not just because hes using a brand name reel.,3. Be sure that your facts, figures, authorities, etc., are valid. 4. A cause-and-effect theme is difficu

37、lt to write. You will note that most discussions of the type are written by specialists. Unless you are writing about a personal experience, you will have to rely upon research to back your statements. You will frequently find topics and authorities mentioned in such courses as history, sociology, p

38、sychology, education, and so forth.,5. Dont assume that a cause that precedes an effect is a true cause or that two things occurring simultaneously are related. The essence of cause and effect is repeated observation-the scientific method. 6. Dont rely on generalizations. A sentence like “Everybody

39、knows that an education is necessary,” may sound good, but it is not proof. If you must generalize, use the words found in the “Qualifiers” part of Definitions. 7. Dont ignore the exceptions. That is, if the causes lead to a certain effect nine out of ten times, you must not ignore the tenth time.,T

40、he Bad New Days My father grew up in the southern part of the state, and I grew up in the southern part of the state. From my father, I have inherited a love for the outdoors, particularly a love for fishing. It is true that all fishermen have a bit of exaggeration in their character. But when my fa

41、ther talks about what fishing used to be like in the “good old days,” I am inclined to believe him. I have to take his words on trust because what we have today certainly bears no resemblance to what he describes. These are truly the “bad new days.”,The Big River, father tells me, once swarmed with

42、small-mouth bass. The water ran clear, there were deep pools of shaded water, and any fisherman could go home with a limit. Today, inadequate laws that allow small communities to dump their raw sewage into the river have turned the Big River into an open sewer. The few fishermen who visit its banks

43、are seeking only carp or catfish.,The local reservoir was once a 200-acre hotspot, or so father says. Today, gizzard shad and catfish have driven out all the game fish. At one time, no live bait could be used, but sometime in the past, some idiot dumped his illegal live bait into the reservoir, and,

44、 inevitably, the trash fish took over.,Green Lake is still a beautiful lake. It looks like a “fish” lake. It still has a reputation, largely undeserved, of being a lake for big bass. There are probably some 8 or 9 pounders in the lake. But look at its shores. Dozens of commercial and private camps,

45、black-topped roads, rules, regulations, swimming beaches-its like fishing in a fountain in the city square. A fisherman is hardly ever out of sight of campers, picnickers, speedboaters, and onlookers.,And Big Indian Lake can now be described as a muddy bowl. It, too, was once a fishermans paradise.

46、But look at it today. Black-topped roads swarming with speeders, the shores marred by beer cans and picnic litter. I imagine that a beach in a city looks pretty much like this on a Sunday afternoon. Also, sedimentation has set in. the lake is one vast shallow saucer of brown water. And when the hund

47、reds of speedboats and water skiers finish their weekend desecrations, it takes three or four days for the water to clear.,The effect of all this is quite obvious. Fishing has become something the old-timers talk about and something the younger generation approaches in a desultory manner. Whatever m

48、ay have been gained by others, the fisherman has lost out. It is a common thing for true fishermen in our section to get in their cars and drive hundreds of miles to fish. Imagine, to find fish we have to leave an area that boasts three or four lakes! And unless other areas wake up, they will eventu

49、ally find that their local fishing waters have also been destroyed.,Suggested topics,The causes of failure Reasons for changing majors Our dropout problem The effects of racism Effects of budget cuts on education Why _ was defeated,分類法（Classification）,當(dāng)所述事物關(guān)系復(fù)雜，就可用分類的方法是相關(guān)事物成為一體。進行分類是保持文章連貫性的好方法。分類時

50、必須注意用統(tǒng)一標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，不能混用不同標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。,Application (Does and Donts),Narrow your topic. For instance, rather than write about “College Teachers,” limit your paper to three or four kinds of teachers. If you are to write about only two classes, choose the Compare/Contrast method.,3. If it is a personal classification, us

51、e a logical divisions. Use a separate paragraph for each division of your classification. Use the logical approach-chronological, increasing or decreasing importance, causal relationship, and so on-that best fits your topic. (If is a traditional classification, you are careful not to plagiarize. Tha

52、t is, you are permitted to use textbook classification, but not the authors words or sentences unless you use quotation.),4.Dont overlap classifications. That is, make sure that a thing belonging to one class does not also belong to another class. (For instance, if you classify automobiles as Import

53、ed, Expensive, and Economical, you will find that some automobiles belong to more than one class.),How Weaves Are Classified Woven fabrics are made by the interlacing of two or more sets of yarn at right angles to produce a fabric. The lengthwise yarn is called the warp, and the crosswise yarn is ca

54、lled the filling (woof). The three basic weaves are called plain, twill and satin. Many interesting effects can be created by variations in these basic weaves.,The plain weave is the simplest and most inexpensive to manufacture. The filling and warp yarns interlace alternately, forming a plain weave

55、 that is durable and used often because it is suitable for most fibers. Sheeting and wooling broadcloth are two examples of plain-weave fabric.,There are variations in the plain weave that make fabric more attractive. A ribbed or corded effect may be obtained by using filling yarns that are heavier

56、than the warp yarns, or vice versa. The decorative blanket weave commonly used in oxford shirting is passed alternately over and under two or more warp yarns.,The twill weave is characterized by diagonal ridges formed by yarns that are exposed on the surface. Twill weaves are more closely woven, hea

57、vier, and studier than plain weaves. Gabardine, denim, and cotton twill are examples of twill-weave fabric. Variations of the twill weave may be used to form herringbone or diamond patterns in the fabric.,The satin weave is ready a broken twill, but the interlacings of the warp and filling yarns are

58、 spaced to avoid the formation of a wale or twill. The satin weave produces smooth, lustrous, rich-looking fabric that gives reasonably good service. Fabrics of the satin weave are more appropriate for dress or formal wear, because they are not as durable as fabrics of plain and twill weaves. Variat

59、ions of the satin weave may be used to make a softer, less lustrous fabric. Examples of fabrics made in the satin weave are antique satin, bridal satin, and dress satin.,比較與對比法（Compare and Contrast）,比較（compare）用于指出同一范疇的事物之間的相似之處，而對比（contrast）則用于指出它們的不同之處。（實際上，比較與對比常同時使用，只是側(cè)重點有所不同。）,通過比較與對比兩種事物或兩個概念，可以達(dá)到以下目的： 1）確定兩種事物的相同與不同之處，便于澄清認(rèn)識，或突出一事物比另一事物的優(yōu)越性； 2）通過熟悉的事物與陌生事物的比較，使人們更清楚地了解陌生事物。,Suggestions,Form 1: Discuss all of one thing. You could use one paragraph for all the good, and one for all the bad. Then discuss all aspects of the second item. Follow the paragraph