新聞傳播學(xué)論文-INTERNATIONALCOPYRIGHTPROTECTIONI.INTRODUCTIONAcopyrightisanexclusiverightconferredbylawforaspecifiedperiodoftimetoreproduceanoriginalliteraryorartisticworkfixedinanytangiblemediumofexpression；topreparederivativeworksbasedupontheoriginalwork；andtopubliclyperformordisplaythework(Netscape1,1995).Copyrightprotectionmeansthatusesofacopyrightedworkarelegalonlywithauthorizationfromthecopyrightowner,butitdoesnotapplytoanyidea,procedureusedinthecopyrightedwork,onlytoanauthorsparticularexpressionoftheideaorprocedureinatangiblemedium.Internationalcopyrightprotectionreferstointernationalrecognitionofanauthorsrightsundercopyrightinothercountries.Butcopyrightis,intrinsically,createdandenforcedbynationallaws.Everycountryintheworldhasitsowncopyrightlawthatapplieswithinitsownborders.Thereisnosuchathingasinternationalcopyrightlawthatautomaticallyprotectsanauthorswritingsthroughouttheworld.AlthoughtheoreticallycasesoninternationalcopyrightviolationcanbebroughttotheInternationalCourtofJustice,nocasehaseverbeenbroughttotheCourtsofar.Givenitsdomesticnature,internationalcopyrightprotectionhasalwaysbeenacomplicatedproblemforallthecountries,which,totheirownbenefits,haveheldvaryingviewsabouttheproblemandhowitshouldbesolved.II.PRODUCERSVS.CONSUMERSPriortothe19thcentury,copyrightlawwasessentiallyamatterofdomesticconcernformostcountries.However,ascreativeworksbegantobeexchangedbeyondnationalborderswithincreasingfrequency,transnationalprotectionforanauthorsworkbecamemoreandmoreimportantforthosecountrieswherecreativeworkswereproduced.They,theproducers,woulddemandcompensationfromconsumers,thosecountrieswherecopyrightedworkswereused.Anearlyexampledatesbacktothechaosintheearlydaysofbulkprintinginthe15thcenturywhenCharlesDickensandotherpopularEnglishwriterssufferedwholesalepiracyoftheirworksbyAmericanprintersbecause,atthattime,copyrightsstoppedatthebordersofanauthorsnativeland.ThispracticewasnotstoppeduntiltheU.S.agreedbytreatytorecognizeEnglishcopyrightsintheU.S.(Strong,1981).Nowwiththeadvanceofcommunicationstechnologiessuchascableandcomputerdigitalization,theworldhasbecomeaglobalvillage.Copyrightprotectionisnotonlyimportanttoprintingandpublishingindustries,butalsotobroadcasting,computersoftware,high-techandentertainmentproducts.Asaresult,theancientpracticeofcommercialpiracyhasbecomesoseriousthatithasemergedasamajoreconomicandpoliticalproblembetweengovernmentsofdevelopedcountries,usuallytheproducersofcreativeworks,anddevelopingcountries,oftentheconsumers.AccordingtoareportfromUSAToday(Cox,1996),theU.S.governmentthreatenedtoimposetradesanctionsof$2billioninChineseimportsifChinadoesnotcrackdownonpirateplantsproducingillegalcomputersoftwarecopyrightedbyMicrosoft,anAmericancompany.Whilewillingtopursueillegalmanufacturersmorevigorously,theChinesegovernmentsaiditwouldretaliateagainstsanctionsbyhittingU.S.goodswithsimilarduties.Throughouthistory,internationalinfringementofcopyrighthasusuallyoccurredindevelopingcountries(consumers)wherethereisinadequateorineffectivecopyrightprotectionand/orwithfewerauthorsandinventors.Tosomedegree,copyrightcanalsobeseenasahistoricallyinevitabledevelopmentasnationsbecomemorematureintheirknowledgeindustries.Inthe1950s,Indiahasseriousdoubtsaboutinternationalcopyrightandinsistedthatdevelopingcountrieshadspecialneedwithregardtoknowledgetransfer,translationsandtextbooks.Indiadidagooddealofpiratingatthetime.However,asIndianpublishingindustrymatured,Indiatookamorefavorableviewtowardsinternationalcopyright.Piracyhasdiminishedsignificantly(Altbach,1988).Infact,twotrendscanusuallybedetectedastohowadevelopingcountrymayinfringecopyrightsintheprocessofitseconomicdevelopment:(1)Inanearlystage,theemphasisintheinfringingcountryisonpromotionandexports,duplicatingtheindustrialproductsorliteraryworks.Later,theinfringermayadoptlessaggressivetactics,turningtoborderlineareasofinfringement,ratherthanexactcopying.Thentheinfringermayobtainalegitimatelicense,eitherasabusinessstrategyorbecausetheownerbegantochallengetheinfringer.Finally,theinfringerlicenseemaydevelopitsownproducts.(2)Asonegovernmentintroducesorstrengthensprotectiveenforcementmachinery,eitherbecauseofforeignthreatsofretaliationoroutofconcernforsafeguardingtheirowninterestsinotherdevelopingareas,theinfringerswillmoveontoanothercountryorbecomelegitimatesuppliers(Stalson,1987).1.VaryingViewsBecauseofthevaryingdegreesineconomicdevelopments,developedanddevelopingcountries,ortheproducersandtheconsumers,tendtoholddifferentviewsoninternationalcopyrightprotection.Developednationsviewcopyrightedproductsandworksasvaluablepropertythatshouldbeprotectedbylawbothdomesticallyandabroad.Theyarguethat(1)copyrightprotectionistheprincipleofnaturaljusticewhichentitlesanauthortothefruitsoflabor；(2)theexpensesforresearchanddevelopmentinproductionofmanygoodsthatarecommonlyinfringeduponhaveincreasedenormously.Thiscanonlybecompensatedwhentheproductisprotectedfromunauthorizedusebyothers；(3)copyrightprotectionfavorswidedisseminationofworksbecausetheyforgelinksbetweensocialclasses,variousraces,agesandgenders.Thecommercialsharingoftheideascontainedintheworkscontributestotheadvancementofsociety(Gasaway&Wiant,1994).However,developingcountriesconsiderinternationalcopyrightprotectiontobeadevicetokeepthemeternallydependentonthetechnologyandcreativenessoftheindustrialworldandtohampertheircapacitiestocreateandinvent.TheyarguecopyrightprotectionisaWesternconceptwhichwascreatedtomaintainamonopolyovertheproductionanddistributionofknowledgeandproducts.SomeAsiancountriesevensaycopyrightwasnotpartoftheAsianculturaltradition.Tosomeextent,itwasimposedonAsiancountriesbyWesterntradingpartners(Altbach,1988).Besides,theyclaimthatknowledgeistheheritageofallmankindandthereforeshouldberespectfullysharedbyall,butprotectiondeniesthemtheeducationalandinstructionaltoolsavailablefromcopyrightedworksbecausetheyareavailableonlyatpricestheycannotaffordandunderconditionsthatmayviolatetheirsovereignty.Theyalsoassertthattheyarelearningbycopying,whichishelpfulforthelatercreationoftheirowntechnologies(Stalson,1987).OneargumentbyRobertoVerzolaevenaccusedtheWestofbeingtherealpiratewhenhetalkedaboutillegalcopyingsoftwareinManila.Verzolaregardedcopyingsoftwareasabenigncaseofpiracy,comparedwiththemalignantcaseoftheU.S.piratinglocaldoctorsfromthePhilippines.Hesaid,whentheU.S.piratedtheirdoctors,ittooktheirreplaceableresourceforittakes10yearstotrainanewdoctor,anddeniedmanypeopleoftheservicesofadoctor.ButwhentheFilipinospiratethecomputerprogram,theydidntdenyanyAmericancitizentheuseoftheprogram(Verzola,1992).2.ProgressYet,despitetheseconceptualargumentsandpracticalproblems,internationalcopyrightisincreasinglyacceptedamongdevelopingcountries,andisbecomingentrenched,bothinlawandinpractice,especiallyamongAsiancountries,suchasChina,SingaporeandMalaysia,whichhavewitnessedfasteconomicdevelopmentinthepastdecade.Chinastartedcopyrightlegislationin1990andismovingtoenforcecopyrightlawsmoreaggressivelythroughtheStateAdministrationofIndustryandCommerce,theagencychargedwithoverseeingcopyrightprotectioninChina.Thegovernmentsaysitisdeterminedtocontroltherampantmanufactureoffakecompactandlaserdiscsandsoftware.Singaporepassedacopyrightactwithteethin1986andhasbeenenforcingcopyrightwithsomevigor.MalaysiahasalsoalawonthebooksandSouthKoreahasbeguntoenforcecontrolsoverfakeproductsaswell(Goldstein,1994).Twomajorreasonscanbecitedfortheremarkableprogressofcopyrightinthesecountrieswhichopposedinternationalcopyrightprotectioninthepast.Thefirstoneisacombinationofcarrotsandsticksfromtheindustrializednations.Thecarrotinthisinstancewasthewillingnessofdevelopednationstoacceptaversionofcompulsorylicensingasawayofshowingtheirunderstandingofthespecialproblemsinthedevelopingcountries.Thestickisthepressurethathasbeenappliedtomajorpiratingcountriestoimplementandenforcecopyrightlaws.Thesecondreasonisanunderstandingonthepartofthedevelopingcountriesthatknowledgeisaninternationalcommodityandrequiresinternationalregulation,aswellasarecognitionthattheyhavejoinedtheinternationalknowledgenetworkandthattheyareproducersaswellasconsumersofknowledge(Altbach,1988).Itisthisprogressinthepastdecadethathasmotivatedmorenations,suchasChina,tojointhetwoprincipalinternationalconventionsdealingincopyrights,namely,theBerneUnionfortheProtectionofLiteraryandArtisticProperty(theBerneConvention)andtheUniversalCopyrightConvention(theUCC).III.INTERNATIONALCONVENTIONS1.TheBerneConventionTheBerneConventionisthefirstmajorcopyrightconventionintheworld.TheoriginalConventionfortheProtectionofLiteraryandArtisticWorkswassignedatBerne,Switzerland,onSeptember9,1886,andwentintoforceonDecember5,1887.TheoriginalBerneConventionwasintendedtopromotefiveobjectives:(1)thedevelopmentofcopyrightlawsinfavorofauthorstobringaboutbetterworldwidecopyrightprotection；(2)theremovalovertimeofreciprocityasabasisforrights；(3)theeliminationofdiscriminationinrightsagainstforeignauthorsinallcountries；(4)thereductionofformalities(formalrequirements)fortherecognitionandprotectionofcopyrightinforeignworks；andfinally(5)thepromotionofuniforminternationallegislationfortheprotectio