1、Chapter 13Literature Review FocusesWhat is a review of the literature?Why do we write literature review?How to write literature review ?Cited sources in a literature review Order of CitationsVerb Tense in Citation1. What is a review of the literature?According to the Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

2、, A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge and or methodological approaches on a particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary sources, and as such, do not report any new or original experimental work.A well-structured literature review

3、is characterized by a logical flow of ideas; current and relevant references with consistent, appropriate referencing style; proper use of terminology; and an unbiased and comprehensive view of the previous research on the topic.文獻(xiàn)綜述的寫法文獻(xiàn)綜述是對(duì)某一方面的專題搜集大量情報(bào)資料后經(jīng)綜合分析而寫成的一種學(xué)術(shù)論文， 它是科學(xué)文獻(xiàn)的一種。文獻(xiàn)綜述是反映當(dāng)前某一領(lǐng)域中某

4、分支學(xué)科或重要專題的最新進(jìn)展、學(xué)術(shù)見(jiàn)解和建議的。它往往能反映出有關(guān)問(wèn)題的新動(dòng)態(tài)、新趨勢(shì)、新水平、新原理和新技術(shù)等等?！熬C”是要求對(duì)文獻(xiàn)資料進(jìn)行綜合分析、歸納整理，使材料更精練明確、更有邏輯層次；“述”就是要求對(duì)綜合整理后的文獻(xiàn)進(jìn)行比較專門的、全面的、深入的、系統(tǒng)的論述?？傊墨I(xiàn)綜述是作者對(duì)某一方面問(wèn)題的歷史背景、前人工作、爭(zhēng)論焦點(diǎn)、研究現(xiàn)狀和發(fā)展前景等內(nèi)容進(jìn)行評(píng)論的科學(xué)性論文。文獻(xiàn)綜述的內(nèi)容要求比較和對(duì)照不同作者對(duì)某一問(wèn)題的觀點(diǎn)；把持有相同結(jié)論的作者放在一起；對(duì)方法論部分進(jìn)行批判；留意觀點(diǎn)之間的分歧；突出經(jīng)典研究；突出研究中的差距；說(shuō)明你研究與以往研究之間的關(guān)系；說(shuō)明你研究與文獻(xiàn)之間的整體關(guān)

5、系；總結(jié)文獻(xiàn)，得出你自己的結(jié)論。2. Why do we write literature review?Literature reviews provide you with a handy guide to a particular topic. If you have limited time to conduct research, literature reviews can give you an overview or act as a stepping stone. For professionals, they are useful reports that keep the

6、m up to date with what is current in the field. For scholars, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the writer in his or her field. Literature reviews also provide a solid background for a research papers investigation. Comprehensive knowledge of the literature

7、 of the field is essential to most research papers. 3. How to write: (1) Four stagesProblem formulation which topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues? Literature search finding materials relevant to the subject being explored Data evaluation determining which literature ma

8、kes a significant contribution to the understanding of the topic Analysis and interpretation discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature (2) Four tasks A literature review must do these things: be organized around and related directly to the thesis or research question you are de

9、veloping synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known identify areas of controversy in the literature formulate questions that need further research (3) Elements comprised in literature review An overview of the subject, issue or theory under consideration, along with the objectives

10、 of the literature review Division of works under review into categories (e.g. those in support of a particular position, those against, and those offering alternative thesis entirely) Explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others Conclusions as to which pieces are bes

11、t considered in their argument, are most convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding and development of their area of research (4) Strategies for writing the literature reviewFind a focus: not just simply list your sources and go into detail about each one o

12、f them, one at a time. Construct a working thesis statement：argue for a particular perspective on the materialUse evidence：interpretation must be backed up with evidence to show that what you are saying is valid. Be selective： Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the

13、review. Summarize and synthesize： Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources within each paragraph as well as throughout the review. While the literature review presents others ideas, your voice (the writers) should remain front and center. 5. Organizing the body 5.1ThematicThematic reviews o

14、f literature are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the progression of time. However, progression of time may still be an important factor in a thematic review. For instance, the sperm whale review could focus on the development of the harpoon for whale hunting. While the study focuses o

15、n one topic, harpoon technology, it will still be organized chronologically. The only difference here between a “chronological” and a “thematic” approach is what is emphasized the most: the development of the harpoon or the harpoon technology.But more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away fr

16、om chronological order. For instance, a thematic review of material on sperm whales might examine how they are portrayed as “evil” in cultural documents. The subsections might include how they are personified, how their proportions are exaggerated, and their behaviors misunderstood. A review organiz

17、ed in this manner would shift between time periods within each section according to the point made.ChronologicalIf your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the materials above according to when they were published. For instance, first you would talk about the British biolo

18、gical studies of the 18th century, then about Moby Dick, published in 1851, then the book on sperm whales in other art (1968), and finally the biology articles (1980s) and the recent articles on American whaling of the 19th century. But there is relatively no continuity among subjects here. And noti

19、ce that even though the sources on sperm whales in other art and on American whaling are written recently, they are about other subjects/objects that were created much earlier. Thus, the review loses its chronological focus.By publicationOrder your sources by publication chronology, then, only if th

20、e order demonstrates a more important trend. For instance, you could order a review of literature on biological studies of sperm whales if the progression revealed a change in dissection practices of the researchers who wrote and/or conducted the studies.By trendA better way to organize the above so

21、urces chronologically is to examine the sources under another trend, such as the history of whaling. Then your review would have subsections according to eras within this period. For instance, the review might examine whaling from pre-1600-1699, 1700-1799, and 1800-1899. Under this method, you would

22、 combine the recent studies on American whaling in the 19th century with Moby Dick itself in the 1800-1899 category, even though the authors wrote a century apart.MethodologicalA methodological approach differs from the two above in that the focusing factor usually does not have to do with the conte

23、nt of the material. Instead, it focuses on the “methods” of the researcher or writer. For the sperm whale project, one methodological approach would be to look at cultural differences between the portrayal of whales in American, British, and French art work. Or the review might focus on the economic

24、 impact of whaling on a community. A methodological scope will influence either the types of documents in the review or the way in which these documents are discussed.Once youve decided on the organizational method for the body of the review, the sections you need to include in the paper should be e

25、asy to figure out. They should arise out of your organizational strategy. In other words, a chronological review would have subsections for each vital time period. A thematic review would have subtopics based upon factors that relate to the theme or issue.Sometimes, though, you might need to add add

26、itional sections that are necessary for your study, but do not fit in the organizational strategy of the body. What other sections you include in the body is up to you. Put in only what is necessary. Here are a few other sections you might want to consider:Current Situation:Information necessary to

27、understand the topic or focus of the literature review.History: The chronological progression of the field, the literature, or an idea that is necessary to understand the literature review, if the body of the literature review is not already a chronology.Methods and/or Standards:The criteria you use

28、d to select the sources in your literature review or the way in which you present your information.For instance, you might explain that your review includes only peer-reviewed articles and journals.6 Presenting source Page 1196.1 describe the source6.2 analyze the work6.2.1 tense in citation6.2.2 te

29、nse in comment or evaluation 6.2.3 tense in expressing attitude59- 28Verb Tense in Citation Verb Tense in Citation Author prominent Information prominent文獻(xiàn)綜述中動(dòng)詞時(shí)態(tài)的用法與作者所要強(qiáng)調(diào)的信息有關(guān)。通常，信息優(yōu)先用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)；作者優(yōu)先強(qiáng)調(diào)的是一項(xiàng)具體研究，用一般過(guò)去時(shí)。59- 29Information prominent: Present 1. The Internet Protocol (IP), however, is based

30、on best effort and lacks the ability to provide some level of Quality of Service (QoS) guarantees 1. 2. When students perceive that their course grades, course procedures, or instructors communication are unfair, they report a greater likelihood of indirect aggression against their instructors (Chor

31、y, 2002; Thompson, 2005a; 2005b), resisting their instructors requests (Houser & Lee, 2006), and giving their instructors lower teaching evaluations (Tata, 1999). 59- 30Author prominent: Past 1. Aleamoni (1981) noted that opinions about student evaluations vary, from reliable, valid and useful to un

32、reliable, invalid, and useless. 2. Schaller (1992) observed that teachers who engaged in more verbal sensitivity (relational competence), immediacy, and negative humor, all of which constitute a relational teaching approach, experienced more satisfaction with their students and work.59- 31Author pro

33、minent: present perfect (1)當(dāng)論文作者強(qiáng)調(diào)幾位作者的研究成果或研究概況時(shí)，常常用現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)。1. Researchers such as Braskamp, Brandenburg and Ory (1984), Aleamoni (1987) and Seldin (1999) have developed guidelines to help conduct teaching evaluations more successfully.59- 32Author prominent: present perfect (2) 2. Although recent re

34、search has provided insights into the composing processes of second language writers (Raimes, 1985; Zamel, 1983, 1985; see Krapels, 1990, for a survey of L2 process studies) and into the discourse structures of L2 texts (Connor & Kaplan, 1987), questions still remain regarding the extent to which la

35、nguage proficiency interacts with and influences writing skill. 3. Slemenda, et al. (1997) have shown that a weak quadriceps muscle is associated with a higher risk for knee osteoarthritis, suggesting indirect evidence that inactivity may be harmful to the joint.59- 33Author prominent: Attitude and

36、tense (1)Note: 論文作者對(duì)所引用的前人研究成果的態(tài)度也影響動(dòng)詞時(shí)態(tài)的選擇。如果過(guò)去的成果非常重要，或者與作者正在從事的研究工作直接相關(guān)，論文作者就會(huì)選擇動(dòng)詞的現(xiàn)在時(shí)，否則，就用過(guò)去時(shí)。 1. Schmidt (1998) identified three types of microcomputer use in classrooms: the object of a course, a support tool, and a means of providing instruction. Foster and Kleene (1998) cite four uses of mi

37、crocomputers in vocational agriculture: drill and practice, tutorial, simulation and problem solving.59- 34Author prominent: Attitude and tense (2) 2. Similarly, a survey of L2 students taking university courses found that they identified vocabulary as a major factor that held them back in academic

38、writing tasks (Leki & Carson, 1994). Laufer (1986) argues that if fluency is understood as “the ability to convey a message with ease and comprehensibility” (p.72), then vocabulary adequacy and accuracy matter more than grammatical correctness.59- 35 Research orientationVerb Tense in Other Parts of

39、Introduction Research Purpose Value Report orientation Modal auxiliaries 介紹研究目的時(shí)，作者可以將著眼點(diǎn)放在研究工作本身（Research Orientation) 并將其作為主語(yǔ)；作者也可以將著眼點(diǎn)放在論文本身（Paper Orientation）并將其作為主語(yǔ)。通常，前者用一般過(guò)去時(shí)；后者用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)或?qū)?lái)時(shí)。59- 36Research PurposeResearch orientation: Past1. The purpose of this study was to determine the extent

40、to which measures of lexical richness, as well as measures of lexical error, are related to the quality of written compositions of L2 learners from mixed language backgrounds at four levels of an intensive English program. 59- 37Research PurposeReport orientation: Present; Future 1. This paper prese

41、nts the results of a survey conducted in Zhejiang province, China, to determine the perceived impact of Chinas accession to the WTO on business professionals. 2. In this paper, we propose an alternative distributed approach, where the local admission decisions are made independently at the edge rout

42、ers of each domain. 3. This paper will discuss some demographic factors which might be important for queen rearing in African honeybee colonies. 7Citation in a literature reviewWe cannot imagine one can fulfill the writing of a literature review without referring to any bibliography. In other words,

43、 to make a literature review more convincing, the writer has to have some cited sources in his or her literature review.7.1forms of citation,7.2 types of citation, 7.3 functions of citation7.4 citation composing process.7.4.1 gist and list7.4.2 TIA7.4.3 Dialogue7.5 Comment of cited works7.6 problems

44、 in citationHow to quoteAs for the writing of a literature review for his or her graduation paper, one needs to do the following:A. Cite and quote when necessaryB. Use in-text citations(夾注)C. Number of cited sources (at least 20)D. All cited sources must be listed in the bibliography.注意：正文中所采用的夾注要與參

45、考文獻(xiàn)嚴(yán)格一一對(duì)應(yīng)。所有文中夾注必須能在Bibliography中找到與其對(duì)應(yīng)的文獻(xiàn)；同樣，所有在Bibliography中所列舉的都是文中夾注引用涉及的文獻(xiàn)，不得羅列同正文沒(méi)有直接關(guān)系的文獻(xiàn)。英文(in-text citations)夾注可以采用以下幾種形式： 間接引用 （citations）A.如果引用只涉及一個(gè)作家的某本專著或文章，而作家的名字在自己的行文中沒(méi)有出現(xiàn), 將該作家的姓氏和出版的時(shí)間用括弧括起來(lái)，放在句子結(jié)尾，注意該括弧算作句子的一部分，標(biāo)點(diǎn)符號(hào)應(yīng)放在括弧之后。例: It has been argued that teachers role is to provide the

46、 students with optimal conditions which can facilitate learning so that students can achieve similar results (Bloom, 1976).B.如果引用所涉及到的作家的名字已經(jīng)出現(xiàn)在行文中, 只需要在名字后面加上括弧, 填入出版時(shí)間即可。例：Gould (1988) attributes Darwins success to his gift for making the appropriate metaphor. C. 如果引用涉及到的作家和著作的出版時(shí)間在行文中已出現(xiàn)，那就不再需要單獨(dú)

47、的夾注了。例：In a 1988 article, Gould explores some of Darwins most effective metaphors.D.如涉及到的作者超過(guò)兩人，少于六人，第一次加夾注時(shí)，寫出所有作者的姓氏，以后每次引用，只需寫出第一作者的姓氏，其后加上“et al”即可。例：Scientists have isolated a gene connected to circadian rhythms in plants (Millar, Straum, Chory, Chua, & Kay, 1995:1163) . . . . They identified t

48、he mutations that activated light-dependent pathways (Millar, et al., 1995:1165)E.如果引用涉及到的著作由六位以上的作者合著，加注時(shí)只需寫出第一作者的姓氏，其后加上“et al.”即可。例：Naiman et al. （1978）found a similar relationship, although I this case effort on the part of the learners was also associated with instrumental motivation (subsequen

49、t citations) (Ellis, 1954: 512).F .如果涉及到同一作者的不同著作，在括弧中按出版時(shí)間分開(kāi)；如果是同一作者在同一年的不同著作，在出版時(shí)間后用小寫英文字母區(qū)別。例：（Halliday, 1978, 1992）；（Halliday, 1967a, 1967b） 直接引用（quotations）A. 如果原著作者的姓氏在自己的行文中沒(méi)有提到，那你需要把作者的姓氏，出版時(shí)間和引文出自的頁(yè)碼用括弧括起，放在引文的后面, 引文用雙引號(hào)。如果引文中原來(lái)就有引號(hào)，將有引號(hào)的部分改為單引號(hào)。例： Conceptually, motivation is seen as “the c

50、ombination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the language plus favorable attitude toward learning language” (Gardner, 1985:10). Based on different findings, it is proposed that “the type of motivation and its strength are likely to be determined less by some generalized principle

51、 and more by who learns what in what milieu” (Laser-Freeman & Long, 1993: 174).B.如果你自己的行文中已經(jīng)提到原著作者的姓氏，則只需在引文的后面用括弧加上頁(yè)碼即可。例：Gardner (1985:10) sees motivation as “the combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the language plus favorable attitude toward learning language” .C. 如果

52、直接引用所涉及到的作者有多位，除遵守以上A，B兩條外，其他規(guī)則與間接引用相同。D.直接引文的字?jǐn)?shù)如少于40英文單詞或4行，引文直接放到段落中。否則引文單獨(dú)成段，段落用“齊頭式”，整個(gè)段落縮行5個(gè)空格 (如果引文還有第二段，整個(gè)段落還要再縮行5個(gè)空格)，引文不需引號(hào)。如引文中已有引號(hào)，保留原來(lái)的引號(hào)。For ExampleRaymond William explains that the word career has all but lost its original meaning. Career is now so regularly used to describe a persons

53、progress in life, or, by derivation from this, his profession or vocation that it is difficult to remember, in the same context, its original meaning of a recourse and a gallopthough in some contexts, as in the phrase “Careering about,” these survive. Career appeared in English . . .E.引用詩(shī)歌, 如少于兩行, 直

54、接引入行文中，兩行間用斜線分開(kāi), 行首的大寫應(yīng)保持,引用部分加雙引號(hào); 如超過(guò)兩行, 則按直接引用規(guī)則D 處理。例：In his “Hymn to Intellectual Beauty,” Shelly personifies the immaterial, spiritual world: “The awful shadow of some unseen Power / Floats though unseen among us.” In “Song of Myself,” Walt Whitman uses the dictation and rhythm of natural spee

55、ch.A child said What is the grass? fetching it to me with full hands;How could I answer the child? I do not know what it is any more than he.I guess it must be the flag of my disposition, out hopeful green stuff woven. F. 引用小說(shuō)如果論文是有關(guān)小說(shuō)評(píng)論，因一般都需從同一小說(shuō)中反復(fù)引用，為方便起見(jiàn)，在第一次引用后用圓括弧注明頁(yè)碼，在加一個(gè)尾注，用上標(biāo)標(biāo)出。尾注說(shuō)明格式如下例。以

56、后每次從該小說(shuō)引用后， 只注明頁(yè)碼即可, 毋需再加尾注。例：In six months time, he was tramped into marriage with her, though “he had no respect for her.” (p. 40)引用多位作者寫作的同一文獻(xiàn)MLA（二至三位作者） Among intentional spoonerisms, the “punlike metathesis of distinctive features may serve to weld together words etymologically unrelated but cl

57、ose in their sound and meaning” (Jakobson and Waugh 304).（如果有三位作者，在括號(hào)夾注中應(yīng)用逗號(hào)分隔他們的姓氏，如：(Alton, Davies, and Rice 56)。MLA（三位以上的作者）：The study was extended for two years, and only after results were reviewed by an independent panel did the researchers publish their findings (Blaine et al. 35).APA（兩位作者）：R

58、esearch (Yamada & Matsuura, 1982) reports the poor performance of advanced English learners who could use English articles correctly only in 70 percent of the cases. 注意兩種規(guī)范的括號(hào)夾注中分別使用“and”與“&”。APA（三至五位作者）第一次引用：According to educational psychologists, raising children is a responsibility of the entire

59、community (Franklin, Childs, & Smith, 1995). 以后的引用： To be successful, “communities must be willing to take this responsibility” (Franklin et al., 1995, p. 135).APA（五位以上的作者）：Patterns of byzantine intrigue have long plagued the internal politics of community college administration in Texas (Douglas et

60、 al., 2003) 1.11.4.5 引用同樣姓氏的不同作者 假若兩個(gè)或兩個(gè)以上的作者有同樣的姓氏，則括號(hào)夾注中應(yīng)同時(shí)使用他們名字的首字母，如： MLA：Although some medical ethicists claim that cloning will lead to designer children (R. Miller 12), others note that the advantages for medical research outweigh this consideration (A. Miller 46).APA：Well-established SLA re