1、Chapter 1 Introduction1.How to interpret the definition of linguistic: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and r

2、ules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to observe and collect language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses thus formed h

3、ave to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation.2.Diachronic linguistics vs. Synchronic linguisticsDiachronic linguistics: eg. study the change in the sound syste

4、m of English from Old English to Modern English. Synchronic linguistics eg. the study of the kind of English used during Shakespeares time.3. How is Saussure distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomskys distinction between competence and performance?Langue and paroleProposed by Swiss li

5、nguists F. de Saussure (sociological view)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole: refers to the realization of langue in actual useIn Saussure opinion, parole is simply a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic

6、 investigation, and what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole. Competence and performance Proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological view) a. Competence : the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his languageb. Performance : the actual realization of knowledge in l

7、inguistic communication. Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks that what linguists should study is the ideal speakers competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard(雜亂無(wú)章的) to be studied. Although a speaker possess an internalized set of rules and applies them in actual use, he cannot tell exa

8、ctly what these rules are. So the task of the linguists is to discover and specify these rules. (比較 Saussure 和 Chomsky 的兩對(duì)概念的異同)1. Saussures distinction and Chomskys are very similar.2. They differ at least in that Saussure took sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of s

9、ocial conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.4. Functions of language:The three main functions of language are the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.Jakobson

10、 identifies six functions of language, namely, emotive, conative, referential, poetic, phatic communication, matalingustic.The meta-functions of language are the ideational function, the interpersonal function and the textual function.5. Speech vs. WritingSpeech and writing are the two major media o

11、f linguistic communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language.6 . Traditional Grammar vs. Modern Grammar Prescriptive & Descriptive7. Linguistics includes Micro-Linguistics and Macro-Linguistics.1. Branches of Micro-Linguistics:(1)

12、Phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2)Phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) Morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) Syntax: it

13、 studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) Semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) Pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.2. Branches of Macro-Linguistics:(1) Psycholinguistics: it stud

14、ies language and its relation with psychology.(2) Sociolinguistics: it studies all social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.(3) Applied linguistics: it studies the applications of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly, it is the applicat

15、ion of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.(4) Other branches，such as computational linguistics, neurolinguistics.Chapter 2 Phonology and Phonetics1. Some rules in phonology(1) Sequential rulesThere are rules that govern th

16、e combination of sounds in a particular language, and these rules are called sequential rules.(2) Assimilation ruleThe assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighboring sounds is, for the m

17、ost part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the case of articulation. This sloppy tendency may become regularizedas rules of language.(3) Deletion ruleIt tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.(examples：s

18、ign, signature; resign, resignation; phlegm, phlegmatic; paradigm, paradigmatic)2. Briefly explain what phonetics and phonology are concerned with and what kind of relationships hold between the two.1. By definition, phonetics is the study of speech sounds, including the production of speech, while

19、phonology is the study of the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. Both phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech. Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds; phonology att

20、empts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages. Phonetics is the study of actual sounds, that is, the analysis and modeling the speech signal; phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries to describe the regular

21、ities of sound patterns in different languages or within a language. In this sense, phonetics is concrete, while phonology is abstract. What phonetics studies is the speech sound, namely phone, what phonology studies is phoneme.3. Phoneme, Phone , AllophoneA phoneme is a minimally distinctive set of

22、 sounds in a language that can signal a difference in meaning. It is an abstract phonological unit represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.A phone is an individual phonetic unit or segment that occurs in speech. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic

23、 communication are all phones. Each of the set of phones which correspond to a single phoneme of a language is called an allophone.Phonemes are placed between slant lines (/) and phones are placed between square brackets ( ). Allophones are phones of the same phoneme generally occur in different con

24、texts and never distinguish one word from another. For example, when we pronounce the two words peak and speak, we are aware that the sound p is pronounced differently, in the word peak, the sound p is pronounced with a strong puff of air stream; but the same stop sound is pronounced slightly differ

25、ently in the word speak, the puff of air is withheld a little. The p sound in peak is called an aspirated p h and the p sound in speak is an aspirated p. There is a slight difference in the way they are pronounced, but such a difference does not give rise to difference in meaning. So /p/is a phoneme

26、 in the English sound system, and it can be realized differently as aspirated or unaspirated in different contexts. The phoneme /p/ in English can be realized as aspirated p h and unaspirated p,which are allophones of the phoneme /p/.Chapter 4Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulf

27、ill the same or similarfunctions in a particular language such as a sentence，a noun phrase or a verb.(結(jié)合胡書(shū)上概念和第六章認(rèn)知中的概念Categorization )2Predication analysisa way to analyze sentence Meaning(1) Definition of predication:The predication analysis is proposed by the British linguist G. Leech In his fram

28、ework of analysis，the basic unit is called predication，which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. This applies to all forms of sentence including statements，imperative and interrogative（疑問(wèn)） forms.(2) Composition of predication:A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate. E. g. TO

29、M (SMOKE) is the predication of these two different sentences:Tom smokes.Tom is smoking.An argument is a logical participant in a predication，largely identical with the nominal element(s)in a sentence. The argument of the example is TOM.A predicate is something said about an argument or it states th

30、e logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. In the above example, the predicate is SMOKE.Argument: Tom Predicate: Smoke (多分析幾個(gè)哈！)3. 什么是述謂結(jié)構(gòu)？它有那些類(lèi)型？ Predication analysis was proposed by G.Leech.The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. This applies to all forms of s

31、entence, including statements, imperative and interrogative forms. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence. A predicate is something that is said about an argument

32、 or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, the predications may be classified into two-place predication (containing two arguments), one-place predication (containing one argument), and no-place predication

33、 ( containing no argument). For example: His car is next to my car. (Two-place predication) ; The man sells ice-cream. MAN, ICE ( SELL) He is singing. (One-place predication) It is raining. (No-place predication) ( BE RAIN )4. Searles classification of speech actsAccording to Searle，speech acts all

34、into five general categories，i. e. ，there are five general types of things we do with language. Specific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point，but differ in their strength.(1)representatives（闡述類(lèi)）: stating or describing，saying what the speaker believes to be true. (The illo

35、cutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to somethings being the case, to the truth of what has been said. Stating， believing，swearing，hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives. )E. g. , (I swear) I have never seen the man before.(2)Directives(指令類(lèi)): tryin

36、g to get the hearer to do something.Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. Inviting，suggesting，requesting，advising，warning， threatening， ordering are all specific instances of this class. ) E. g. , Open the window!(3)Commisives（承諾類(lèi)）: committing the speaker himself

37、to some future course of action，i. e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising， undertaking， vowing are the most typical cases. E. g. , I promise to come.(4)Expressives（表達(dá)類(lèi)）: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state. (The illocutionary point of ex

38、pressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs，e. g. apologizing，thanking，congratulating. ) E. g. , I am sorry for the mess I have made.(5)declarations（宣告類(lèi)）: bringing about immediate

39、changes by saying something. Declarations has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality. ) E. g. , I fire you!Language Acquisition第一語(yǔ)言習(xí)得1. (1) First language acquisition refers to the childs acquisition

40、of his mother tongue, i. e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. 2.Language Acquisition Device(2) Chomsky referred to childrens innate ability to learn their native language as Language Acquisition Device (LAD). The LAD was described as an imaginary black box ex

41、isting somewhere in the human brain. The black box is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages. Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate the LAD, which enables them to discover his languages structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic

42、grammatical system to that particular language. 3.Critical Period Hypothesis1.Eric Lenneberg，a biologist，argued that the LAD，like other biological functions，works successfully only when it is I stimulated at the right timea specific and limited time period for language acquisitionwhich is referred t

43、o as the Critical Period Hypothesis(CPH). 2. ContentThere are two versions of the CPH. While the strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty (發(fā)育期) or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure. The weak holds that language learning will be more diffi

44、cult and incomplete after puberty. People now have reached the consensus that there is a critical period for first language acquisition.4. Theories of child language acquisition1). A behaviorist view of language acquisition(1) Main content A behaviorist view of language acquisition Traditional behav

45、iorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. A child imitates the sounds and patterns of the people around him；people recognize the childs attempts and reinforce the attempts by responding differently, the child repeats the

46、 right sounds or patterns to get the reward (reinforcement) So imitation and practice are preliminary ，discrimination and generalization are key to language development in this theory.(2) Significance（優(yōu)）The behaviorist theory of child language acquisition offers a reasonable account of how children

47、acquire some of the regular and routine aspects of the language，(缺)yet how they acquire more complex grammatical structures of the language requires a different explanation.2). An innatist view of language acquisition (1) DefinitionNoam Chomsky claims that human beings are biologically programmed fo

48、r language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions, such as walking.(2) DevelopmentOriginally Chomsky referred to this innate ability as Language Acquisition Device，(also known as LAD). Later Chomsky prefers this innate endowment as Universal Grammar(UG) and ho

49、lds that if children are pre-equipped with UG，then what they have to learn is the ways in which their own language makes use of these principles and the variations on those principles which may exist in the particular language they are learning.(3) Main contentThe innatists argue that children could

50、 not discover the rules of reflexive pronouns by trial and error. Instead childrens acquisition of these grammatical rules is guided by principles of an innate UG. Different languages have different rules about reflexives, and children seem to be able to know the rules by being exposed to a limited

51、number of examples.3). An interactionist view of language acquisitionThe interaetionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops. Integrated with the innatist view，the interac

52、tionist further claims that the modified language which is suitable for the childs capability is crucial in his language acquisition.4).Among the language acquisition theories，which one do you think is more reasonable and convincing? Explain why.There are three language acquisition theories.Traditio

53、nal behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. According to innatist view, human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as

54、walking. The interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops. Behaviorists view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspects, the innatist accounts most plausib

55、le in explaining childrens acquiring complex system, and the interactionist description convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment.5Cognitive factors in child language developmentThe cognitive factors relate to language acquisition mainly

56、 in two ways.1. Language development is dependent on both the concepts children form about the world and what they feel stimulated to communicate at the early and later stages of their language development.2. The cognitive factors determine how the child makes sense of the linguistic system himself

57、instead of what meanings the child perceives and expresses. Many careful studies of childrens acquisition sequences and errors in various languages have revealed that children have someoperating principles for making sense of language data.6. Stages in child language development1. Phonological devel

58、opmentChildren are born with an ability to discriminate and produce sounds，and the acquisition of sounds is universal across all culture and languages. The sequence in which the sounds are acquired works like a system of pre-requisites，that is to say，the child must pass each stage before he can proc

59、eed to the next one.2. Vocabulary developmentThe most obvious fact about vocabulary development is that it goes hand in hand with the childs environment. First words are labels for things in the environment. When the child learns a word，he learns not only how to pronounce the word but also the meani

60、ng of each form and how each form is different in meaning from every other form.3. Grammatical developmentWhile children are increasing their mastery of grammatical morphemes，they are also increasing their ability to carry out “transformations” of the basic sentence structure so as to produce more c