1、Whatisfilm?Film,orAm.andAus.movie,isaseriesofmovingpictures,usuallyshowninacinemaorontelevisionandoftentellingastory.Asoneofthemostinfluentialmassmedia,ithasstruggledtoachieveitsproperplaceasareputableartform.Itmergesalltheotherformsofart:literature,painting,sculpture,music,architecture,drama,andado

2、ptsthetechnicalachievementsinnaturalscienceandappliedsciencelikeacoustics,optics，electronics，mechanics,andcomputer,etc.Filmisunlimitednotonlyinitschoiceofsubjectmatterbutalsointhescopeofitsapproachtothatmaterial.Themotionpicturehasprogressedstepbystepfromdrawings,tophotographs,toprojected,images,tos

3、ound,tocolor,towidescreen,to3-D.peopleenjoyhavingwideselectionsofentertainmentforms,yetfilmstillhasitsartisticcharmandappealstopeopleofdifferentagesfromallwalksoflife.FilmHistoryTheUSwasthefirstcountrytoturnfilmintoapopularformofentertainmentandanimportantindustry.Thefirstfull-length“story”filmwasTh

4、eTrainRobbery火車大劫案of1903.(,D.W.GriffithsfamousBirthofNation一個國家的誕生1915)wasthefirstmajorfeaturefilmmadeintheUS.Thedecade19211931wascalledthe“goldperiodofsilentfilms”Thankstotheinnovationsintechnique,content,andstructuralforms,Hollywoodsfilmmakingculminatedforthefirsttimeduringthe1930sandthe1940s,andm

5、anydistinguishedfilmscameintobeing,suchasCitizenKane，GreatDictator,WaterlooBridge,GonewiththeWind,Rebecca,Casablancaetc,Inthe1950sAmericanmoviesexperiencedanalltimelow.alltimelow.Inthe1960sHollywoodbegantoadjustherselftothecompetingsituationbycooperatingwithtelevision,producingmotionpicturesandother

6、thingsforTV.From1970son,HollywoodcombinedthenewtechnologyofvideotapeandDVDwithfilmmaking,whichhelpedkeepitinthecompetitionofculturalconsumption.Americanfilmartistsshotfilms,likeJaw,StarWars,andSupermanandwontheboxofficeandaudienceaswell.Hollywoodbegantoadaptherselftothedemandofthebuyersmarket,forexa

7、mple,manyafilmhasbeenshottoreflectthecurrentissuesofAmericansociety,sincepeoplestartedtomeditateontraditionandmaterialism.Thesewereethicalfilms:WallStreet,Philadelphia,BridgesofMadisonCounty;filmonpoliticalissues:JFK,OneFlewOvertheCuckoosNest;war-themefilms:BornontheFourthofJuly,SchindlersList,Savin

8、gPrivateRyan;recreationofAmericanimage:ForrestGumpTheaudiencealsoenjoyedthevisualandpsychologicalstimulationfromthesciencefilmslikeStarWars,Alien;horrorfilmlike:SilenceoftheSilenceoftheLambs;ScreamTheOmen,anddisasterfilmslike:Twister,Volcano,Earthquake,etc1MovieAwards1.OscarPrize:Oscarisanameofthean

9、nualawards,intheformofsmallstatuettes,thathavebeengivenbytheAmericanAcademyOfMotionPictureArtsandSciencessince1927formorethan30categoriesinvolvingeverystageoffilmmakingduringtheyear.Itisthemostinfluentialmovieprizeforthosewhocontributeagreatdealtofilmart.WhyisitcalledOscar?In1931,whenasecretarysaidt

10、hefigurelookedlikeheruncleOscar,itgotthisnickname.Hollywoodhasanotherlegendabouthowitgotthenickname.ItsaidthatBettyDaviscoinedthetermwhenshetookagoodlookatthestatuetteandremarkedhowmuchthebacksidelookedlikeherfirsthusband,HermanOscarNelson.OscarPrizeCountriesfromallovertheworldvaluetheAcademyAwards,

11、sothateveryfilmartistfromnearandfarassembleinHollywoodtocelebratetheawardceremony.Undoubtedlyitpromotedtheadvancementandinnovationoffilmart,thefilmartistsenthusiasmanddiligence,theexchangeandcooperationofallthecountries.TheOscarhasalsoelevatedthecountries.Hollywoodtoamorespecialpositionintheworldoff

12、ilmmaking.worldoffilmmaking.MovieAwards2.PalmedOr(GoldPalm):TheCannesInternationalTheCannesInternationalFilmFestivalopenedonSeptember20,1946inFranceafterreceivingtheapprovaloftheprovisionalgovernment.18countrieswererepresentedonthefirstFestival,andallthedelegateswereautomaticallyjurymembers.TheCanne

13、sFestivalawardseveryyearPalmedOrtothebestfilmofthecompetition.ThePalmedOristhemostattractiveandprestigiousawardoftheFestival.3.TheGoldenGlobeAward:ItbeganItbeganfrom1943.TheHollywoodForeignPressAssociationPressAssociationawardsitsGoldenfilmGlobestohonorachievementsinfilmandtelevisionduringthecalenda

14、ryear.TheHFPAcurrentlypresentsawardsinthefollowingmotionpicturecategories:Picture(DramaandMusicalorComedy),Actor(DramaandMusicalorComedy),Actress(DramaandMusicalorComedy),SupportingActor,SupportingActress,Director,Screenplay,OriginalScore,theOriginalSong,ForeignFilmandtheCecilB.DeMilleAward.（塞西爾B德米爾

15、獎；又稱美國金球獎終身成就獎）HollywoodHollywoodisthecenteroftheUnitedStatesmotionpictureandtelevisionthenorthwestofindustries.ItsituatesinLosAngeles,California.TodayHollywoodisnotonlythecenterofthemotionpictureindustry,butalsoofthetelevision,filmandrecordingindustriesofAmerica.Mostofthefamousmotionpicturescorpora

16、tionsofthosedays,Metro-Goldwyn,ColumbiaMayer,andWarnerBrothersarestillverymuchinbusiness.NowHollywoodisnolongertheheartoftheworldsmotionpictureindustry.Still,about80%ofallAmericanTVentertainmentcomesfromHollywood.RatingsSystemTheratingsystemofratingmotionpictureswasintroducedbytheMotionPictureAssoci

17、ationofAmericaonOct.7,1968,andwentintoeffectonNov.1.Therearefourcategoriesofratings:2GGindicatesthefilmisforgeneralaudiencesofallages.PGmeansparentalguidancesuggested.Thisisafilmwhichclearlyneedstobeexaminedaboutbyparentsbeforetheylettheiryoungerchildrenattend.Parentsarewarnedagainstsendingtheirchil

18、drentoPG-ratedmoviesunseen.Rmeanschildrenunder17sarerestrictedandrequireaccompanyingparentorguardian.Thisisanadultfilminsomeofitsaspectsandtreatmentsoforaslanguage,violence,ornudity,sexualityorothercontentisconcerned.Xmeansnooneunder17canbeadmitted.Thisisanadultfilmandnochildrenareallowedtoattend.It

19、shouldbenoted,however,thatXdoesnotnecessarilymeanobsceneorpornographicintermsofsexorviolence.GenreofFilmsMusicals音樂片thicalFilms倫理片CrimeFilms犯罪片tectiveFilms偵探片LoveFilms愛情片DisasterFilms災難片HistoryFilms歷史片SuspenseThrillers驚險懸念片WarFilms戰(zhàn)爭片Sci-FiFilms科幻片AnimatedCartoon動畫片MusicalandDanceFilmsMusicalanddanc

20、efilmswereoneofthemajorfilmgenres,astheyweredependentonsound.Withthecomingofsoundmotionpictures,themusicalfilmgenreemergedfromitsroots:stagemusicals.DefinitionofMusicalFilms:Musicalanddancefilmsarecinematicformswhichemphasizesonganddanceroutinesinasignificantway,ortheyarefilmswhicharecenteredoncombi

21、nationsofmusic,dance,songofchoreography(舞臺舞蹈).Musicalshighlightasearchforlove,success,wealth,andpopularity.The1930sandthe1940sareconsideredtheGoldenAgeoftheMusical.Musicalscameintofullflowerinthe1940s.Colorwasbeingintroducedintothemajorproductions.MGMsmostpopularfantasymusicalwastheartistic,classicm

22、asterpieceTheWizardofOz(1939),starringanappealingandyoungemergingstarJudyGarlandasDorothyinamagicalland.FourBroadwaymusicalsinthe1960sadaptedforthescreenwontheacademyAwardforBestPictureWestSideStory(1961),MyFairLady(1964),TheSoundofMusic(1965),andOlive!(1968).TheSoundofMusic(1965)surpassedGoneWithth

23、eWind(1939)tobecomethebiggestbox-officehittodate,andthefilmwonfiveOscarsin1966:BestDirector;BestFilm;Editing;BestMusic,ScoringofMusic,AdaptationorTreatment(最佳音樂-音樂編配);BestPicture;BestSound(最佳音響).MemorableSongs:3TheSoundofMusicIHaveConfidenceMyFavouriteThingsSixteenGoingonSeventeenDoReMiTheLonelyGoat

24、herdSoLong,FarewellClimbEveryMountainSomethingGoodEdelweissAnimatedmusicalblockbustersfromDisneysstudiosalsosucceededwithhigh-qualityfeaturefilms:TheLittleMermaid(1989),BeautyandtheBeast(1991),Aladdin(1992),andTheLionKing(1994).MusicalsAListofRenownedMusicals:MyFairLady窈窕淑女（1964）TheSoundofMusic音樂之聲（

25、1965)SingingintheRain雨中曲（1951）TheWizardofOz綠野仙蹤（1939）WestsideStory西區(qū)故事（1961）Gigi金粉世界（1958）ItHappenedOneNight一夜風流（1934）TheKingandI國王與我（1956）AnAmericaninParis巴黎艷遇（1951）JulieAndrews(1935-JuliaElizabethWellswasborninWalton-on-Thames(泰吾士河畔的瓦爾頓),England,onOctober1st1935.Early,shebegantolearnbothtapdance(踢

26、踏舞)andballetfromanaunt.Whenshewas4,herparents,BarbaraandTedWellsseparated.BarbaramarriedTedAndrewsWellsandJuliachangedhernameforJulieAndrews.BarbaraandTedwereamusicalduo(一對音樂藝人)andtheydiscoveredthatJuliehada“freak”voicewitharangeof4octaves(4個8度).JuliebegansinginglessonswithMadameLillianStiles-Allena

27、ttheageof8.Whenshewas12,shewascastinStarlightRoof星光之頂.ShealsoperformedintheRoyalCommandVarietyPerformanceattheLondonPalladium(倫敦皇家宮廷節(jié)目的演出)whensheturned13yearsold.There,sheperformedsongsinfrontoftheKingGeorgeVI,QueenElisabeth,PrincePhilipandPrincessMargaret.In1954,JuliewascastinTheBoyFriendTheBoyFrie

28、nd,atTheRoyalTheater(皇家劇院皇家劇院).SheleftherfamilytomoveinNewYork.ShealsoperformedtheroleofElizaDoolittleintheproductionMyFairLady我的麗人ofAlanJayLernerandFrederickLoewe.Afterthat,shewasinthecastofCamelot伏魔神劍withRichardBurton.ShehadtheroleofGuinevere.4Shestoppedin1962,togivebirthtoEmmaKate,herfirstandonly

29、childwithTonyWalton,herfirsthusband.In1965,shewasheroineinTheSoundofMusic,whichmadeherfamousallovertheworld,andshemadealotofmoviesthereafter.In1967,shedivorcedfromTonyWalton.In1969,shemarriedBlakeEdwards,thedirectorofDarlingLiliDarlingLili拂曉出擊.Sheadopted,in1974,twoorphanschildren,AmyandJoanna.Shewro

30、techildrensbooks.Mandy,TheLastoftheReallygreatWhangdoodlesandmorerecently,LittleBo.In1998,Julielostherwonderfulvoice.Thiswasduetoanoperationthatshehadonherthroat,toremovenon-cancerousnodules(良性的喉瘤手術(shù)),butinMay1999,shemadeherfirstattemptatsinginginpublic.JuliehasbeennamedonBritainsHonoursList(英國名人榮譽)a

31、ndhasbeenmadeaDame(女爵士).JulieAndrewsMovies1234567JulieAndrewsMoviesThePrincessDiaries2公主日記2：皇家婚約Shrek2怪物史萊克2ThePrincessDiaries公主日記AFineRomance浪漫之旅Tchin-Tchin嘴對嘴的戰(zhàn)爭JulieAndrewsMoviesDuetforOne怨女春曲ThatsLife!生之樂章Year20042004200119921991Year198719868TheManWhoLovedWomen男生愛女人1983910Victor/Victoria雌雄莫辨S.O.

32、B.瘋狂人生1982198151112131415JulieAndrewsMoviesLittleMissMarker小麻煩10十全十美TheTamarindSeed激情DarlingLili拂曉出擊Star!星光燦爛樂升平Y(jié)ear19801979197419701968JulieAndrewsMoviesYear16ThoroughlyModernMillie蜜莉姑娘蜜莉1967姑娘1718Hawaii夏威夷TornCurtain沖破鐵幕1966196619TheSoundofMusic1965音樂之聲MaryPoppins歡樂滿人間201964JulieAndrewsMoviesYear2

33、1TheAmericanizationofEmily丁副官196522TheRoseofBaghdad1952EthicalFilmsDefinitionofEthicalFilms:EthicalFilmsarefilmswiththeethicsasitssubject,andserveasanexplorationofthemoralconductsandethicalstandardsacceptedinasociety.Differentfromtheotherkindsoffilm,suchethicalsubjectsaslove,marriage,family,religion

34、,generationgapand6socialproblemscanbefoundinalmosteveryethicalfilm.Therefore,theyenjoybroaderrangesandcomehardertodefine.AListofRenownedEthicalFilms:Kramervs.Kramer克萊默夫婦（1979）DrivingMissDaisy為黛西小姐開車（1989）RainMan雨人（1988）ForrestGump阿甘正傳（1994）ScentofaWoman聞香識女人（1992）TheBestYearsofOurLives黃金時代（1946）APla

35、ceintheSun郎心似鐵（1951）AStreetcarNamedDesire欲望號街車（1951）OneFlewovertheCuckoosNest飛越瘋?cè)嗽海?975）AmericanBeauty美國麗人（1999）WallStreet華爾街（1987）Philadelphia費城故事（1993）TermsofEndearment母女情深（1983）SophiesChoice索菲的選擇（1982）ForrestGump阿甘正傳TomHanks(1956-)Height:511Religion:GreekOrthodoxChurch,hiswifeschoiceHobbies:Surfi

36、ng,golf,hockeyTomHanks(1956-)ThomasJ.HankswasbornonJuly9,1956inConcord,California.Hanksspentmuchofhischildhoodmovingaboutwithhisfather,anitinerant(巡回的)cook,andcontinuallyattemptingtocopewithconstantlychangingschools,religions,andstepmothers.Hankssaysthatbythetimeheturned10,healreadyhad“threemothers,

37、fivegrammarschoolsand10houses”;nevertheless,hehatesitwhenthenewsmediasayhecamefromabrokenhome,becausehefeelsheandhisfamilyarestillclose.AftersettlinginOakland,California,hebeganperforminginhighschoolplays.Atage20,hedroppedoutcollegetopursueacting.In1978,inNewYork,hemarriedhisfirstwife,actress-produc

38、erSamanthaLewes.TomHankswasmarriedtoSamanthaLewesfrom1978to1985andhastwochildren,ColinandElizabeth.HemarriedRitaWilsonwhohemetduringfilmingofthemovie,Volunteers志愿者onApril30,1988andnowhastwochildren,ChesterandTruman.in1989,TomHankswonaGoldenGlobeAward,theLosAngelesFilmCriticsAwardandearnedhisfirstOsc

39、arnominationforhisendearingroleofalittleboyinamansbodyinPennyMarshallsBig飛躍未來.TomHankshasreceivedtwoBestActorAcademyAwardsin1994and1995.Hebecamethefirstactorinover50yearstowinconsecutiveBestActorAcademyAwardswhenhecapturedhissecondOscarforhisunforgettableperformanceinthetitleroleinRobertZemeckisForr

40、estGump.HisworkinthefilmalsobroughthimaGoldenGlobeAward7andaScreenActorsGuildhonor.Theyearprior,HankswashonoredwithhisfirstOscar(aswellasanotherGoldenGlobeAward)forBestActorforhismovingportrayalofAIDS-strickenlawyerAndrewBeckettinJonathanDemmesPhiladelphia費城故事.Hewonhisfourthnominationforhisleadingro

41、leofaWWIIplatooncaptainleadingasquadroninsearchofamissingsoldierinStevenSpielbergsepicdrama,SavingPrivateRyan拯救大兵瑞恩.HeearnedanotherGoldenGlobenominationforhisworkoppositeMegRyanintheromanticcomedySleeplessinSeattle西雅圖不眠夜,directedbyNoraEphron.Hanksreceivedwidespreadcriticalandaudienceacclaimforhiswor

42、kasastronautJimLovellintheAcademyAwardnominatedspaceepicApollo13阿波羅13號HisotherfilmcreditsincludeBachelorParty瘋狂今晚夜,ALeagueofTheirOwn女子棒球隊紅粉聯(lián)盟,Punchline頭條笑料,NothinginCommon對頭冤家andTheMoneyPit錢之坑.HanksalsocreatedthevoiceofcowboyWoodyintheDisneyanimatedfilmsToyStory玩具總動員andToyStory2玩具總動員2.SleeplessinSea

43、ttle西雅圖不眠夜TheTerminal幸福終點站BandofBrothers兄弟連ForrestGump阿甘正傳US(1994)ParamountPicturesDirector:RobertZemeckisCast:TomHanksForrestGumpGarySiniseLt.DanRobinWrightJennyAwards:ThefilmwonOscarsforBestPicture,BestActor,BestDirector,BestFilmEditing,BestVisualEffectsandBestAdaptedScreenplay.AnimatedFilmsDefini

44、tionofAnimatedFilms:AnimatedFilmsareonesinwhichindividualdrawingsarephotographedframebyframe.Usually,eachframediffersslightlyfromtheoneprecedingit,givingtheillusionofmovementwhenframesareprojectedinrapidsuccession.Animatedfilmsareoftendirectedto,orappealmosttochildren,butcanbeenjoyedbyall.Animation,

45、fairytales,stop-motionfilms(模型定格拍攝，靜幀動畫),andadventuresthatappealtochildrenareincludedinthisgenrecategory.AnimatedFilmsTheearliestanimatedfilmsthatmostpeoplerememberseeingareDisneyfilmswhichcontainexquisitedetails,flowingmovements,gorgeousandrichcolor,enchantingcharacters,lovelymusicalsongsandtunes,a

46、ndstoriesdrawnwithmagicalormythologicalplots.Thefirst,full-lengthanimatedfilmwastheclassicSnowWhiteandtheSevenDwarfs(1937),otherclassicDisneytalesincludethestoryofawoodenpuppetthatcomesaliveinPinocchio(1940),andthestorybooktalesofCinderella(1950),AliceinWonderland8(1951),andSleepingBeauty(1959).Anot

47、hertimelessfantasyenjoyedperenniallyisthetaleofajourneytoOzinTheWizardofOz(1939).DisneyStudiosreturnedtothequalityofitsheydayofanimationfromthe30sand40swithTheLittleMermaid(1989),BeautyandtheBeast(1991)nominatedforawell-deservedBestPictureAcademyAward,Aladdin(1992),andTheLionKing(1994).Anotherexcept

48、ionalfilmisWhoFramedRogerRabbit(1988),aremarkableblendofanimatedimageryandlive-actionhumancharacters.PixarStudioscreatedthefirstcompletelycomputer-generatedanimatedfeaturefilmwiththelandmarkToyStory(1995).Thevisualswereentirelygeneratedfromcomputers.AListofRenownedAnimatedCartoons:TheLionKing獅子王（199

49、4）SnowWhiteandtheSevenDwarfs白雪公主（1937）SleepingBeauty睡美人（1938）ToyStory玩具總動員（1995）BeautyandtheBeast美女與野獸（1991）TomandJerry湯姆與杰瑞（1991）Aladdin阿拉?。?996）SteamboatWillie“威利”號輪船（1928）TheHunchbackofNotre-Dame鐘樓怪客（1996）TheLionKing獅子王TheLionKing,releasedbyWaltDisneyPicturein1994,wasoneofthetopblockbustersinthep

50、asttenyearsintheUS.In1995,TheLionKing,wontheOscarfortheBestMusic,OriginalScore（最佳音樂-最佳原創(chuàng)音樂）byHansZimmer.EltonJohn(music)andTimRice(Lyrics)wontheOscarfortheBestSong（最佳歌曲）:CanYouFeeltheLoveTonight.Theirsong“HakunaMatata”wasnominatedOscarBestMusic.（最佳音樂歌曲提名）Thereareatleasttworeasonsforitspopularity.One

51、isthecharmofShakespearestheme:Hamlet,andtheotheristheattractionofAfricanscenery.Justassomeofthereviewerssaid,“HamletmeetsTheJungleBookthatswhatTheLionKingis.”ChapterFiveLoveFilmsDefinitionofLoveFilms:Romancefilms,lovestories,oraffairsoftheheartcenteronpassion,emotion,andtheromantic,affectionateinvol

52、vementofthemaincharacters(usuallyaleadingmanandlady),andthejourneythattheirlovetakesthroughcourtshipormarriage.Romancefilmsmakethelovestoryorthesearchforlovethemainplotfocus.Oftentimes,loversinscreenromancesfaceobstaclesandthehazardsofhardship,finances,physicalillness,racialorsocialclassstatus,occup

53、ation,psychologicalrestraints,orfamilythatthreatentobreaktheirunionandattainmentoflove.DefinitionofLoveFilms:Romanticfilmsoftenexploretheessentialthemesofloveatfirstsight,young(andolder)love,unrequitedlove,obsessivelove,sentimentallove,spirituallove,forbiddenlove,sexualandpassionatelove,sacrificiall

54、ove,explosiveanddestructivelove,andtragiclove.9Romanticfilmsserveasgreatescapesandfantasiesforviewers,especiallyifthetwopeoplefinallyovercometheirdifficulties,declaretheirlove,andexperiencelife“happilyeverafter”impliedbyareunionandfinalkiss.AListofRenownedLoveFilms:LoveStory愛情故事（1970）WutheringHeight

55、s呼嘯山莊（1939）WaterlooBridge魂斷藍橋（1940）RomanHoliday羅馬假日（1953）TheRedShoes紅鈴艷（1948）RomeoandJuliet羅密歐和朱麗葉（1968）PrideandPrejudice傲慢與偏見（1940）TheEnglishPatient英國病人（1996）ShakespeareinLove戀愛中的莎士比亞（1998）SleeplessinSeattleUS(1993)TriStarPicturesDirector:NoraEphronCast:TomHanksSamBaldwinMegRyanAnnieReedAwards:Thef

56、ilmwasnominatedOscarsforBestMusic,OriginalSong(“Awinkandasmile”)andBestWriting,OriginalScreenplay.Choosethebestanswertoeachofthequestionsthatfollows.1.Theelementsofsurpriseandsuspenseinthismoviecomefrom_.A.theadventureswhichthecharactersexperienceB.thedifficultyofknowinghowthestorywillendC.thefearwe

57、sharethatJonahmaybelostD.thedifficultiesinthewayofameetingbetweenAnnieandSam2.Annie,playedbyMegRyan,isemployedas_.A.afashionmodelB.ajournalistC.amerchantbankerD.acomputerprogrammer3.Thestoryissetintwoplaces,BaltimoreandSeattle.Thisisimportantbecause_.A.SeattleisintheWestandBaltimoreintheEastofNorthA

58、merica,severalhoursofflyingtimeapartB.SeattleandBaltimorearecitiesinthesamepartofNorthAmerica,withinanhourofeachotherbycarC.BaltimoreandSeattlearesuburbsseparatedbynomorethanhalfanhourstravellingtimeD.BaltimoreandSeattleareconnectedonlybyradioandtelephone104.RadiotalkshowoffersA.generaladviceondilem

59、masthatmaybesimilartothosefacedbylistenersB.interviewsinwhichwell-knownpeoplediscussproblemstheyhaveencounteredinthepastC.opportunityforlistenerstospeaktoqualifiedadvisersabouttheirproblemsD.answersbybroadcasterstolistenersletters5.Thepseudonym“SleeplessinSeattle”is.A.adescriptionofSamsstateofmindin

60、thestoryB.awayofidentifyingSamwhileconcealinghisidentityC.thetitleofamovieknowntotheaudienceandknownalsotopeopleinthestoryD.aneasilyrememberedtitleforthismovie,withnospecialmeaningWritethenamesofthefollowingpeopleinthestory.Sam1.thehero:_Jonah2.theherosson:_Becky3.theheroinesbest(girl)friend:_Walter