1、1.Anthropological Study of Linguistics: aims to look at the relationshipsbetween language and culture in a speech community. For this reason,it can alternatively be called anthropological linguistics.More specifically, practitioners of the field want to know more about agiven community by examining

2、the correlation between the tradition ofthe community, beliefs, and social behavior of community membersand their language use in different contexts of communication.Communication: is an information process taking place between at leasttwo parties or persons.Communicative Competence: is a sociolingu

3、istic rule put forward byDell Hymes in contrast with the “competence” vs. “performance”dichotomy in theoretic linguistics.Context of Situation: is a framework put forward by Firth. This theoryhas the following elements (Firth, 1950: 43-44 Palmer, 1981: 53-54).A. The relevant features of the particip

4、ants: persons, personalities:(i) The verbal action of the participants.(ii) The non-verbal action of the participants.B. The relevant objects.C. The effects of the verbal action.Nidas Classification of Culture: According to Nida (1964), there arefive types of sub-culture we should be fully aware of

5、when engagedin translation: 1) ecological culture; 2) linguistic culture; 3)religious culture; 4) material culture; and 5) social culture.Ethnography of Communication:is an authoritative research frameworkof our time in a linguistic study of social and cultural factors(Hymes, 1962).FLB: an important

6、 concept recently put forward by theoretic linguistics,stands for the faculty of language in the broad sense. It forms acontrast with FLNthe faculty of language in the narrow sense.FLN: an important concept recently put forward by theoreticlinguistics, stands for the faculty of language in the narro

7、w sense. Itforms a contrast with FLBthe faculty of language in the broad sense.Gender Difference: is a term used to refer to the variety ofdifferences observed between men and womens linguistic behavior.This study covers almost all the levels of linguistic studies, rangingfrom pronunciation variants

8、 to communicative patterns.Linguistic Determinism:is a theory which believes that our language willinfluence or decide our way of looking at the world. In a loosesense, linguistic determinism, linguistic relativity, and the Sapir-Whorfhypothesis can be regarded as synonyms.Linguistic Relativity:is a

9、 view which “was first expounded by the Germanethnologist, Wilhelm von Humboldt” (Crystal, 1985: 262). In a loosesense, this term has the same meaning with linguistic determinism andthe Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.Linguistic Sexism: is a term used to refer to sex-biased phenomena inlanguage use. More spe

10、cifically, it aims to reveal and deal with linguisticissues related to male chauvinism.Six-Person System:is a typological pattern developed to study personalpronouns from the perspective of linguistic universality (Ingram, 1978).The following table summarizes this system explicitly. This typological

11、system provides us with a comparative model to study the pronominalusage across languages.Six-Person SystemsingularpluralweIthouheyoutheySpeech Community:refers to a group of people who “share not only thesame rules of speaking, but at least one linguistic variety as well.”(Hymes, 1972: 52)SPEAKING:

12、 is a mnemonic way of summarizing certain components ofspeech which make possible the description and analysis ofcommunicative behavior: S=Situation, P=Participants,E=Ends（目的）, A=Act sequence（相關(guān)形式與內(nèi)容） , K=Key（語氣）,I=Instrumentalities（語式）, N=Norms（準(zhǔn)則）, and G=Genres（體裁）.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: is a the

13、oretic assumption which suggests thatour language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently,different languages may probably express speakers unique ways ofunderstanding the world. In a loose sense, this term can beinterchangeably used with linguistic relativity and linguisticdeterminism.Soc

14、iolinguistics of Language: examines issues related to the subjectfrom a more linguistic perspective and, hence, is complementary withthe Sociolinguistics of Society in terms of its coverage and concerns.Alternatively, we may also define the Sociolinguistics of Language as astudy of sociolinguistic i

15、ssues at a micro level of discussion.Sociolinguistics of Society: examines issues related to the subject froma more societal perspective and, hence, is complementary with theSociolinguistics of Language in terms of its coverage and concerns.Alternatively, we may also define the Sociolinguistics of S

16、ociety as astudy of sociolinguistic issues at a macro level of discussion.Tripartite Model for Successful Communication:is a working frameworkwhich is based on Rogers concept of real communication (1961) and iscomposed of the following principles: 1) try to look at things from otherpersons point of

17、view, 2) try to sense their feeling to a given issue, and3) try to understand their way of knowing the world.Variationist Linguistics: is a theoretic framework advanced by WilliamLabov to study how language variation and change take place indifferent social contexts or geographic districts under the

18、 influence ofsocial factors such as economics, education, class, gender, style, and soon. The method it uses is basically quantitative, but qualitativeinstruments have recently been introduced in this branch of linguisticresearch for a better description and explanation of the data collected.Women R

19、egister: is a hypothesis which assumes that the followingfeatures are prevailing in womens linguistic behavior:1) Women use more “fancy” color terms such as “mauve” and “beige”.2) Women use less powerful curse words.3) Women use more intensifiers such as “terrible” and “awful”.4) Women use more tag

20、questions.5) Women use more statement questions like “Dinner will be ready atseven oclock?” (with a rising intonation at the end)6) Womens linguistic behavior is more indirect and, hence, more politethan mens.2.A couple of contrastive points can be given to show importantcontributions of sociolingui

21、stics to linguistics. First, we observe thattraditional linguistics emphasizes a formal analysis of language,whereas sociolinguistics calls for a multi-faceted study of language aswell so that a more balanced research framework can be achieved.Second, we notice that traditional linguistics focuses m

22、uch on the studyof structure, whereas sociolinguistics emphasizes the study of functionas well so that a holistic study of linguistic issues will be possible. Third,traditional linguistics attempts to look at internalized elements oflanguage, whereas sociolinguistics pays attention to externalizedfa

23、ctors in language use as well so that a better understanding of therelationships between language, society, and the speaker can beachieved.3.A consensus has been reached that language not only reflects culturebut also is part of culture. The close relationships between languageand culture have widel

24、y been acknowledged. When it comes to languageteaching and learning, the influence of cultural knowledge on thelinguistic performance of language learners has been identified andhighlighted. It has repeatedly been found that learners who lacksufficient knowledge about the target culture can hardly b

25、ecome activeand appropriate language users in their target language. For thesereasons, the information concerning cultural differences has rightlybeen introduced in language classrooms of different kinds forenhancing learners cultural consciousness and improving theirperformance in cross-cultural co

26、ntexts of communication.4.A healthier understanding of the relationships between functionalismand formalism is to regard them as two sides of a coin rather than twocontrasting theories or concepts. Meanwhile, we must also admit thateach of them has something rather unique in terms of the selection o

27、ftheoretical frameworks, perspectives, research concerns, and methods.For instance, when we want to study grammatical issues from atypological perspective, a formal description of the differences inlanguage structure proves to be a more economic and feasible approach.On the other hand, if we attempt

28、 to examine issues related to languageuse, a functional perspective will be a better choice. In either case, thereis no absolute contrast between the two, if you want to have a holisticstudy of linguistic problems.5.If we compare newspaper articles published recently with thosepublished five years a

29、go, we will catch a big difference in their lexicalchoicethere are so many new words and expressions in these newarticles. Based on the results of this comparison, we may predict thattodays readers will find it a little bit difficult to understand what futurenewspapers will carry. Over the past deca

30、des, Chinese people haveenjoyed a much more colorful life, materially and spiritually. The rapiddevelopment in science, technology, economics, culture, and educationhas brought in our daily communication thousands and thousands ofnew words. Words such as 短信、動漫、網(wǎng)游、按揭、干細(xì)胞、海選（in anelectionin a job inte

31、rview, which used to sound so professional,have now become part of our active vocabulary and are used frequentlyin our speech. Facing a situation like this, you may ask this question:Where do these new words and expressions come from? It is not an easyjob to tell a complete story of these words. If

32、you look at the questionfrom a sociolinguistic point of view, you may claim that languagechanges with society. Words are the most active, sensible, andchangeable component of language. Following this line of reasoning, wemay conclude that, as society changes, the vocabulary of our languagewill becom

33、e richer, more colorful and expressive in the days to come.6.Basically speaking, the above explanation is not a correct one. As weall know, people from different cultural backgrounds speak differently.A maxim we should keep in mind is that one cultures meat can beanother cultures poison. Take the qu

34、oted example again. Englishpeople and Chinese people have their distinctive ways to expresspoliteness. In most cases, expressions like “thank you” and “please” areused as a lip service（口惠）in English, not really meaning that thespeaker owes you something. On the other hand, a friendly smile or asligh

35、t nodding will be a more common practice in Chinese culture toexpress politeness. If we are not aware of this subtle difference, newcultural misunderstanding will come into being. For instance, you mayeither feel that English speakers are so polite for trivial things that theyappear false and less s

36、incere（虛情假意） or consider that Chinesespeakers are so rude that they never know how to speak politely.7.In cross-cultural communication, when people have some trouble anddo not know how to behave correctly, they tend to turn to their sourceculture for help. This is a strategy often used by communicat

37、ors in anew cultural setting. Convenient as it is, this strategy may not alwayswork. Far too many bad stories can be told to illustrate this point. This isbecause people from different communities think, behave, and speakdifferently. As our case studies in Chapter 7 show, if we are not readyfor this difference, we may run into trouble. Therefore, a principle thatcross-cultural communicators should follow is to understand the targetculture by transcending the source culture. Put alternatively, try to do asthe Romans do when in Rome.8.Ac