ChapteroneIntroduction一、定義1.語言學LinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.2.一般語言學GeneralLinguisticsThestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledGenerallinguistics.3.語言languageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.語言是人類用來社交的隨意性的有聲符號系統(tǒng)。4.辨別特點DesignFeaturesItreferstothedefiningpopertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.語言辨別特點是指人類語言差別與其余任何動物的社交系統(tǒng)的限制性特點。Arbitrariness隨意性Productivity多產(chǎn)性Duality兩重性Displacement移位性Culturaltransmission文化傳達arbitrarinessThereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.P.SthearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressionsProductivityAnimalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend.DualityLanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.DisplacementLanguagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.CulturaltransmissionHumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,butwehavetobetaughtandlearnedthedetailsofanylanguagesystem.thisshowedthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.notbyinstinct.animalsarebornwiththecapacitytoproducethesetofcallspeculiartotheirspecies.5.語言能力CompetenceCompetenceistheidealuser’sknowledgeoftheruleslanguageofhis.6.語言運用performancePerformanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.語言運用是所掌握的規(guī)則在語言社交中的表現(xiàn)。7.歷時語言學DiachroniclinguisticsThestudyoflanguagechangethroughtime.adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy,whichstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodof.time.8.共時語言學SynchronicallinguisticsThestudyofagivenlanguageatagiventime.9.語言langueTheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity.10.語言paroleTherealizationoflangueinactualuse.11.規(guī)定性PrescriptiveItaimstolaydownrulesfor”correct”behavior,totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhatshouldnotsay.12.描繪性DescriptiveAlinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.二、知識點1.languageisnotanisolatedphenomenon,it’sasocialactivitycarriedoutinacertainsocialenvironmentbyhumanbeings.語言不是一種孤立的現(xiàn)象，而是人類在必定的社會環(huán)境下進行的一種社會活動。提出了語言的辨別特點designfeatures3.theword’languageceded’prbythezero-article,itimpliesthatlinguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage.Language一詞前不加冠詞說明語言學家不僅研究一種特定的語言。最初惹起語言學家注意的是語言的發(fā)音。三、問答題1.whataremajorbranchesoflinguistics?whatdoeseachstudy?Phonetics----it’definedsasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage,it’sconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.Phonology---thestudyofsoundssystems—theinventoryofdistinctivesoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternsintowhichtheyfall.Morphology---It’sabranchofagrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Syntax-------it'sasubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureofalanguage.Semantics---It’—thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety.Psycholinguistics---thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofthemind.Appliedlinguistics---theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning.2.whydowesaylanguageisarbitrary?Languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthesoundsthatpeopleuseandtheobjectstowhichthesesoundsrefer.Thefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesameobjectisagoodillustrationofthearbitrarynatureoflanguage,it’onlysourtacitagreementofutteranceandconceptatworkandnotanyinnaterelationshipboundupintheutterance..Atypicalexampletoillustratethe‘a(chǎn)rbitrariness’oflanguageis‘a(chǎn)rosebyanamewouldsmellassweet’.3.whatmakesmodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?Modernlinguisticsisdescriptive,itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspokenlanguagedate現(xiàn).代語言學是描繪性的，其研究以的確靠譜的、主要以口語形式的資料為基礎。traditionalgrammarisprescriptive.itisbasedon’high’writtenlanguage.傳統(tǒng)語法是規(guī)定性的，研究‘高級’書面語。4.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?whyModernlinguisticsismainlysynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage.unlessthevariousstatesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudied,itwillnotbepossibletodescribelanguagefromadiachronicpointofview.現(xiàn)代語言學主假如共時性的，要點研究現(xiàn)代語言。除非對語言的各樣狀態(tài)都進行成功的研究，不然很難從歷時性角度對語言進行描繪。5.whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics,speechorwritings?Speechenjoysforthefollowingreasons:⑴Speechprecedeswritingintermsofevolution.⑵Alargeamountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwriting.⑶speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage.6.howisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sBothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.theirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemforseriousstudyTwolinguistsideadifferinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguage,Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofview,competenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.6.thedistinctionbetweenlangueandparole?langueisabstract,relativelystable⑵paroleisconcrete,variesfrompersontoperson,fromsituationtosituation.1/Whatislinguistics?什么是語言學？Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.2/Thescopeoflinguistics語言學的研究范圍Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.普(通語言學)Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.（語音學）.Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.（音系學）Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.（形態(tài)學）Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax（句法學）Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics（.語義學）Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.（語用學）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.（社會語言學）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理語言學）Thestudyofapplications(astherecoveryofspeechability)isgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.（應用語言學）Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,（人類語言學）neurologicallinguistics,（神經(jīng)語言學）mathematicallinguistics,（數(shù)字語言學）andcomputationallinguistics.（計算機語言學）3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics語言學研究中的幾對基本看法ChapterTwoPhonology一、定義1.寬式音標BroadtranscriptionThetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly.2.窄式音標NarrowtranscriptionThetranscriptionofspeechsoundwithletterssymbolsandthediacritics.3.清音VoicelessWhenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarecalledvoicelesssounds.4.濁音VoicingSoundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledvoicedsounds.5.元音VowelThesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels.6.輔音ConsonantsThesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamat.somepointofthevocaltractarecalledconsonants.7.音位PhonemeThebasicunitinphonology,it’sacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.8.音位變體AllophonesDifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.9.音素phoneAphoneticunitorsegment.itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,it’sassoundweusewhenspeakingalanguage.10.最小對峙對MinimalpairWhentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.11.超切分特點SuprasegmentalThephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonationandtone.12.互補散布complementarydistributionP35Twoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.13.語言的語音媒介PhonicmediumoflanguageThelimitedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage.在人類社交中有著必定意義、對語言學研究來說舉足輕重。有限的聲音是語音媒介。14.爆破音stopsWhenaobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorcomplete,thespeechsoundproducedwiththeobstructionreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledastoporaplosive.theyare[b][p][t][d][k][g]二、知識點1.statisticsresultingfromcarefulinvestigationsshowthattherehavebeenover5,000languagesintheworld,abouttwothirdsofwhichhavenothadwrittenform.構(gòu)成Articulatoryphonetics發(fā)音語音學longestestablished,mostlydevelopedAuditoryphonetics聽覺語音學⑶Acousticphonetics聲學語音學4.articulatoryApparatus/OrgansofSpeechPharyngealcavity–咽腔Oral...–口腔greatestsourceofmodificationofairstreamfoundhereNasal–鼻腔5.Thetongueisthemostflexible,responsibleformorevarietiesofarticulationthan.anyother,theextremebackofthetonguecanberaisedtowardstheuvulaandaspeechsoundcanbethusproducedasisusedinArabicandFrench.6.Obstructionbetweenthebackofthetongueandthevelararearesultsinthepronunciationof[k]and[g],thenarrowingofspacebetweenthehardpalateandthefrontofthetongueleadstothesound[j];theobstructioncreatedbetweenthetipofthetongueandthealveolarridgeresultsinthesounds[t]and[d].7.nasalconsonants:[m]/[n]/[η]例子Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:thefirstphonememustbe/s/thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/⑶thethirdphonememustbe/l/or/r/or/w11.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:Fallingtone;Risingtone;Fall-risetone;Rise-falltone三、問答題1.whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?howdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsound?Articulatory—describesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydiffer.Auditory-–studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,reachestheimportantconclusionthatphoneticidentityisonlyatheoreticalideal.Acoustic-–studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,thewaysoundtravelfromthespeakertothehearer.發(fā)音語音學描繪了我們的發(fā)音器官怎樣發(fā)出語音，以及這些語音為何有所不一樣。聽覺語音學研究語音的物理性質(zhì)，得出了重要結(jié)論，即語音同一不過理論上的理想。聲學語音學研究語音的物理性質(zhì)，研究語音從說話者到聽話者之間的流傳方式。2.howaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?ByplaceofarticulationandBymannerofarticulation3.howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferentbetweensay[i]and[i],[p]and[ph],aphoneticianoraphilologist?why?語音學和音位學的研究中心有何不一樣?語音學家和音位學家哪一個更關(guān)懷清楚音的差別?為何?Phonetics—descriptionofallspeechsoundsandtheirfinddifferences.Phonology—descriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctiontodistinguishmeaning.Aphoneticianwouldbemoreinterestedinsuchdifferencescossuchdifferenceswillnotcosdifferencesinmeaning.4.what’saphone?howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?howareallophonesrelatedtoa.phoneme?Phone—aspeechsound,aphoneticunit.Phoneme---acollectionofabstractsoundfeatures,aphonologicalunit.Allophones---actualrealizationofaphonemeindifferentphoneticcontexts.5.whatisaminimalpairandaminimalset?whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetinalanguage?為何劃分最小對峙組在一種語言中特別重要?Minimalpair—twosoundcombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementthatoccursinthesameposition.除了出此刻同一地點的一個語音成分不一樣外,其余部分都同樣的兩個語音組合.Minimalset—agroupofsoundcombinationswiththeabovefeature.一組擁有上述特點的語音組合.Byidentifyingtheminimalpairortheminimalsetofalanguage,aphilologistcanidentifyitsphonemes.經(jīng)過剖析一種語言的最小對峙對或最小對峙組,音位學家能鑒別出它的音位.6.Explainwithexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowonetranscriptiondiffer?Broadtranscription—onelettersymbolforonesound.Narrowtranscription—diacriticsareaddedtotheone-lettersymbolstoshowthefinerdifferencesbetweensounds.7.explainthesequentialrule,theassimilationruleandthedeletionrule.有序規(guī)則SequentialrulesRulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.同化規(guī)則AssimilationrulesTheassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby’copying’featureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.省略規(guī)則DeletionruleIt’asphonologicalrulewhichtellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitsorthographicallyrepresented.ChapterThreeMorphology一、定義1.詞素MorphemeThebasicunitinthestudyofmorphologyandthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.2.自由詞素FreeMorphemeFreemorphemesareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves.3.黏著詞素BoundmorphemesBoundmorphemesarethesemorphemesthatcanotbeusedbythemselves,mustbecombinedwithothermorphemestoformwordsthatcanbeusedindependently.4.詞根RootRootisthebaseformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotalloss.ofidentity.5.詞綴AffixThecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.6.波折詞綴inflectionalaffixesThemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.7.派生詞綴DerivationalaffixesThemanifestationofrelationbetweenstemsandaffixesthroughtheadditionofderivationalaffixes.8.詞干StemAstemistheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded.astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.9.形態(tài)學規(guī)則MorphologicalrulesTheyarerulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewword.10.前綴PrefixPrefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword,exceptionsaretheprefixes-‘a(chǎn)nd‘en(m)-‘‘be11.后綴SuffixSuffixesareaddedtotheendofstems,theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.3.Inusingthemorphologicalrules,wemustguardagainstOver-generalization.二、知識點Inflectionalmorphology1.MorphologyDerivationalmorphologyFreemorphemesMorphemesRootBoundmorphemesInflectionalaffixesAffixesPrefixDerivationalaffixes2.somewordsmaybesaidtocontainarootmorpheme.Suffix4.Compoundfeatures:orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasoneword,twoseparatewordswithorwithoutahypheninbetween.Syntactically,thepartofspeechofacompoundisdeterminedbythelastelement.⑶semantically,themeaningofacompoundisidiomatic,notcalculablefromthemeaningsofallitscomponent.Chapter5Semantics一、定義1.命名論ThenamingtheoryThenamingtheory,oneoftheoldestnotionsconcerningmeaning,andalsoaveryprimitiveonewasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsusedinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor,sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.2.意念論TheconceptualistviewItholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.3.語境論ConceptualismIt’sbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.heraretwokindsofcontext:thesituationalandthelinguisticcontext.4.行為主義論BehaviorismItreferstotheattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe”siinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearertheory”.thsomewhatclosetoconceptualismemphasizesonthepsychologicalresponse.5.意義SenseIt’sconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.It’sthecolleallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform,it-’contextusabstralizedctand.de6.所指意義ReferenceItmeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld,itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.7.同義詞SynonymyItreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningorwecansaythatwordsarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.8.多義詞PolysemyItreferstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.9.同音(形)異義HomonymyItreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavedifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e,differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.10.同音異義Homophones11.同形異義HomographsItreferstotwowordsareidenticalinform.e.g.tearv./tearn.12.上下義關(guān)系HyponymyItreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalled.superordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.13.反義詞AntonymyIt’sthetermusedforoppositenessofmeaningondifferentdimension.14.成分剖析法ComponentialAnalysis----剖析詞匯抽象意義It’sawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaning.thisapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatmeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.15.述謂構(gòu)造剖析PredicationAnalysis由BritishLinguistG.Leech提出It’sanewapproachforsententialmeaninganalysis.Predicationisusuallyconsideredanimportantcommoncategorysharedbypropositions,questions,commandsect.經(jīng)過對論元argument和謂語predicate的剖析，達到對句子意義進行剖析的很多模式中的一種。16.先設前提PresuppositionIt’sasemanticrelationshiporlogicalconnection.ApresupposesB.17.蘊涵EntailmentEntailmentcanbeillustratedbythefollowingtowsentencesinwhichsentenceAentailssentenceB.Markmarriedablondeheiress.Markmarriedablonde.二、知識點1.Majorviewsofmeaningstudy:ThenamingTheory-----希臘ScholarPlatoTheconceptualism-----看法代表人是JohnFirth,但Bloomfield論述更有說服力TheConceptualistview----Ogden和Richards用classicsemantictriangleofsignificanceTheBehaviorism-----英國Bloomfield提出，使用了Jack和Jill故事說明Thenamingtheory的限制性:It’sonlyapplicabletoNounsonly.⑵Withinthecategoryofnouns,therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdon’texistintherealworld.sense2.Lexicalmeaningreference3.主要的意義關(guān)系Synonymy;Antonymy;Hyponymy;Polysemy;homonymy4.(1)Dialectalsynonyms—synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialectsSynonyms(2)Stylisticsynonyms---Synonymsdifferinginstyle分類(3)Synonymsthatdifferentintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning(4)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms例子：(1)BritishEnglishLiftLuggageLorryPetrolFlatwindscreentorchAmericanEnglishElevatorBaggageTruckGasolineApartmentwindshield.flashlight(2)kickthebucket=popoff=die=passaway=decease5.Wordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality.6.somesynonymsdifferintheircollocation.例子sourmilkRottentomatoesaddledeggsrancidbaconorbutterapolysemicword,i.e,awordwithseveralmeaning,pletehomonymsareoftenbroughtintobeingbycoincidence.8.Accordingnamingtheorywordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.9.Everyutteranceoccursinaparticularspatiotemporalsituation,themaincomponentsofwhichinclude,apartfromtheplaceandtimeoftheutterance,thespeakerandthehearer,theactiontheyareperformingatthetime,thevariousobjectsandeventexistedinthesituation.10.thecontextulistviewwasfurtherstrengthenedbyBloomfield,whodrewonbehaviouristpsychologywhentryingtodefinethemeaningoflinguisticforms.11Homophones—whentwowordsareidenticalinsoundRain/reign;night/knight;piece/peace;leak/leekHomonymyHomographs—whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling分類Bowv./bown.tearv./tearnleadv./leadn.Completehomonyms—whentwowordsareidenticalinbothspellingandsound例.子Fastadj./fastv.scalen./scalev.12.(1)Gradableantonyms分級反義詞(amatterofdegree)例子Old—middle-aged—young;hot-warm-coldAntonym(2)Complementaryantonyms互補反義詞amatterofdegreebetween分類twoextremes例子Alive—dead;male—female;(3)Relationalopposites關(guān)系反義詞(中間能夠加成分，如上、中、下)father-son;teacher-pupil;doctor-patient;buy-sell;above-below13.句子間的意義關(guān)系senserelationbetweensentencesXissynonymouswithY.XentailsY.XpresupposesY.Xisacontradiction.Xissemanticallyanomalous.14.Analysisofmeaning意義的剖析(1)Componentialanalysis—awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning對詞匯成分的剖析Predicationanalysis—awaytoanalyzesentencemeaning對句子意義的剖析(1)isawayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanalyzewordmeaning.Theapproachisbaseduponthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledSemanticfeatures.一個單詞的意義能夠剖析為稱作語義特點的意義。Thisisparalleltothewayaphonemeisanalyzedintosmallercomponentscalled.distinctivefeatures.這一方法和把一個音位剖析成更小的叫作差別性特點的方法近似。Plusandminimumssignsareusedtoindicatewhetheracertainsemanticfeatureispresentorabsent,thesefeaturesymbolsareusuallywrittenincapitalizedletters.Oneadvantageofcomponentialanalysisisthatbyspecifyingthesemanticfeaturesofcertainwords,itwillbepossibletoshowhowthesewordsarerelatedinmeaning.加減號用來表示某一語義特點在一個詞義中是存在或缺省，這些特點用大寫字母來寫。15.themeaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitscomponents.TwoaspectsofSentencemeaning:grammaticalandsemanticmeaning.16.Selectionalrestrictions---Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrules.17.Insemanticanalysisofasentence,thebasicunitiscalledpredication------Predicationistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence.itappliestoallformsofasentence,includingstatements,imperativeandinterrogative.PredicationconsistsofArgumentsandPredicates.述謂是句子基本單位，是對句子的抽象化，合用于包含陳說句、祈使句和疑問句。述謂由一個或數(shù)個論元和一個謂詞構(gòu)成。Anargumentisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelementsinasentence,apredicateissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinasentence.論元是一個的邏輯的一個參加者，謂詞是對于論元的陳說，或說明一個句子的論元間的邏輯關(guān)系。18.Accordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication,weclassifythepredicationsintotwo-placepredication(hastwoarguments),one-placepredication(hasoneargument),andno-placepredication(hasnoargument).19.判斷題：althoughpredicateandargumentarethesamekindofunitintermsoftheircomponentialmake-up,theyhavedifferentrolesinthewholepredication.thepredicatecanberegardedasthemainelement,foritincludestense,modality,ect.itmayalsosaidtogoverntheargumentsforitdeterminesthenumberofnatureofthearguments.20.Theanalysisofmeaningisahighlyabstractandcomplicatedmatter.三、問答題1.howaresenseandreferencerelated?Sensereferstotheinherentmeaningofalinguisticform,whichisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform,it’s-conabstexturactalizendde.Referenceiswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld,itisamatterofrelationshipbetweentheformandreality.2.inwhatwayiscomponentialanalysissimilartotheanalysisofphonemesintodistinctivefeatures?成分剖析和把音位剖析為差別性特點有何相像之處？Inthelightofcomponentialanalysis,themeaningofawordconsistsofanumberofdistinctivemeaningfeatures,theanalysisbreaksdownthemeaningofthewordintothesefeatures;itisthesedifferentfeaturesthatdistinguishwordmeaningsimilarly,a.phonemeisconsideredasacollectionofdistinctivesoundfeatures,aphonemecanbebrokendownintothesedistinctivesoundfeaturesanditsthesesoundfeaturesthatdistinguishdifferentsounds.3.what’grammaticality?swhatmighttakeagrammaticallymeaningfulsentencesemanticallymeaningless?什么是語法性？一個語法上存心義的句子可能因為何而不是存心義的?Grammaticality---thegrammaticalwell-formednessofasentence.Chapter6pragmatics一、定義1.語境ContextThenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage,it’sgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.2.語言行為理論SpeechacttheoryIt’ansimportanttheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage.it’asphilosophicalexplanationofthenatureoflinguisticcommunication.itaimstoanswerthequestion”whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?”Theconceptofcausativesperformatives,thelocutionaryact,theillocutionaryact,theperlocutionaryactandthe5categoriesofillocutionaryactsuggestedandformulatedbyJ.R.Searleconstitutethespeechacttheory.3.表達句ConstativesConstativesarestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiableanditbearingthetruth-value.;4.行為句PerformativesPerformativesaresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.5.言行家為LocutionaryActAlocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.it’thesactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.6.言外行為IllcotionaryActAnillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker’intentionsit’thesactperformedinsayingsomething.7.言后行為PerlocutionaryActPerlocuationaryActistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething.ittheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.8.句子意義SentencemeaningItreferstoasentenceandisagrammaticalconcept,themeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedastheabstractintrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofpredication.9.話語意義Utterancemeaning.Itreferstoasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication,itbecomesandutteranceanditshouldbeconsideredinthesituationinwhichitisactuallyuttered.10.合作原則CooperativePrincipleIt’proposedandformulatedbyP.Grice,apragmatichypothesis,isaboutthattheparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate,otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.11.會話含義ConversationalimplicaturesAccordingtoP.Grice,itreferstotheextrameaningnotcontainedinthutterance,understandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker’sknowledgeorknowwhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthefourmaximsoftheCP.話語的言外之義是說話人經(jīng)過成心違犯某一準則而獲取這類聽者能懂的暗含之意。二、知識點1.語用學的幾個重要的理論⑴語言行為理論Speechacttheory由英國哲學家JohnAustin在20世紀50年月末提出在此理論基礎上John劃分了定義了表達句Constatives和行為句performatives在劃分表達句和行為句以后，他又定義了言行家為、言外行為和言后行為4.Semantics和Pragmatics的劃分Pragmaticsstudieshowmeaningisconveyedintheprocessofcommunication.Thebasicdifferencebetweenthemisthatpragmaticsconsidersmeaningincontext,traditionalsemanticsstudiesmeaninginisolationfromthecontextofuse.5.語境入耳者與說話者sharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:Theknowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,theknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.6.Sentencemeaning與Utterancemeaning的差別Sentencemeaning---abstract,decontextualized.Utterancemeaning---concrete,contextualizedit’sbasedonsentencemeaning,it’stherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.劃分句子和話句，近似劃分語義和語用學，要點在于能否考慮語境。Intermsofsyntax,someutterancesarenot,andsomecan’eventberestoredtocompletesentencesChapter8Sociolinguistics.一、定義1.語言社區(qū)SpeechCommunityItreferstoagroupofpeoplewhoformacommunityandshareatleastonespeechvarietyaswellassimilarlinguisticnorms.2.社會方言SocialectAvarietyoflanguageusedbypeoplebelongingtoaprticularsocialclass.3.語域RegisterAfunctionalspeechorlanguagevarietythatinvolvesdegreesofformalitydependingonthespeechsituationconcerned.4.標準語StandardLanguageAsuperposedprestigiousvarietyoflanguageofacommunityornation,usuallybasedonthespeechandwritingofeducatednativespeakersofthelanguage.5.通用語LinguaFrancavarietyoflanguagethatservesasacommonspeechforsocialcontactamonggroupsofpeoplewhospeakdifferentnativelanguagesordialects.6.洋涇浜語Pidgin邊沿性接觸語言=有限的詞匯+減少的語法構(gòu)造by其余語言的本族語者Amarginalcontactlanguagewithalimitedvocabularyandreducedgrammaticalstructures,usedbynativespeakersofotherlanguagesasameansofbusinesscommunication.7.雙言現(xiàn)象DiglossiaAsociolinguisticsituationinwhichtwoverydifferentvarietiesoflanguageco-existinaspeechcommunity,eachservingaparticularsocialfunctionandusedforaparticularsituation.8.語言禁忌LinguistictabooAnobscene,profane,orswearwordorexpressionthatisprohibitedfromgeneralusebytheeducatedand“polite”society.9.委宛語EuphemismAwordorexpressionthatisthoughttobemild,indirect,orlessoffensiveandusedasapolitesubstituteforthesupposedlyharshandunpleasantwordorexpression.10.語碼變換Code-SwitchingItreferstoabilingualspeakerfotenusestwolanguagesalternativelyduringaconversationwithanotherbilingualspeaker人.們在社交中依據(jù)需要輪番使用不一樣的語言、方言或其余變體。11.語言變體SpeechVarietyItreferstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakerorgourpofspeakers.thedistinctivecharacteristicsofaspeechvarietymaybelexical,phonological,morphological,syntactic,oracombinationofli