2012年全國碩士研究生入學統(tǒng)一考試英語（一）試題

SectionIUseofEnglish

Directions:

Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestword(s)foreachnumberedblankandmarkA,B,C

orDonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)

TheethicaljudgmentsoftheSupremeCourtjusticeshavebecomeanimportantissue

recently.Thecourtcannot____1____itslegitimacyasguardianoftheruleoflaw_____2____

justicesbehavelikepoliticians.Yet,inseveralinstances,justicesactedinwaysthat_____3____

thecourfsreputationforbeingindependentandimpartial.

JusticeAntoninScalia,forexample,appearedatpoliticalevents.Thatkindofactivitymakes

itlesslikelythatthecourfsdecisionswillbe____4____asimpartialjudgments.Partofthe

problemisthatthejusticesarenot_5_byanethicscode.Attheveryleast,thecourtshouldmake

itself_6_tothecodeofconductthat______7______totherestofthefederaljudiciary.

Thisandothersimilarcases8thequestionofwhetherthereisstilla9between

thecourtandpolitics.

TheframersoftheConstitutionenvisionedlaw_10_havingauthorityapartfrompolitics.

Theygavejusticespermanentpositions11theywouldbefreeto____12____thosein

powerandhavenoneedto____13politicalsupport.Ourlegalsystemwasdesignedtoset

lawapartfrompoliticspreciselybecausetheyaresoclosely____14____.

Constitutionallawispoliticalbecauseitresultsfromchoicesrootedinfundamentalsocial

_15_likelibertyandproperty.Whenthecourtdealswithsocialpolicydecisions,thelawit

____16____isinescapablypolitical-whichiswhydecisionssplitalongideologicallinesareso

easily____17____asunjust.

Thejusticesmust18____doubtsaboutthecourfslegitimacybymakingthemselves

____19____tothecodeofconduct.Thatwouldmakerulingsmorelikelytobeseenasseparate

frompoliticsand,____20____,convincingaslaw.

1.[A]emphasize[B]maintain[C]modify[D]recognize

2.[A]when[B]lest[C]before[D]unless

3.[A]restored[B]weakened[C]established[D]eliminated

4.[A]challenged[B]compromised[C]suspected[D]accepted

5.[A]advanced[B]caught[C]bound[D]founded

6.[A]resistant[B]subject[C]immune[D]prone

7.[A]resorts[B]sticks[C]loads[D]applies

8.[A]evade[B]raise[C]deny[D]settle

9.[A]line[B]barrier[C]similarity[D]conflict

10.[A]by[B]as[C]though[D]towards

11.[A]so[B]sinee[C]provided[D]though

12.[A]serve[B]satisfy[C]upset[D]replace

13.[A]confirm[B]express[C]cultivate[D]offer

14.[A]guarded[B]followed[C]studied[D]tied

15.[A]concepts[B]theories[C]divisions[D]conceptions

16.[A]excludes[B]questions[C]shapes[D]controls

17.[A]dismissed[B]released[C]ranked[D]distorted

18.[A]suppress[B]exploit[C]address[D]ignore

19.[A]accessible[B]amiable[C]agreeable[D]accountable

20.[A]byallmesns[B]atalIcosts[C]inaword[D]asaresult

Section11ReadingComprehension

PartA

Directions:

Readthefollowingfourtexts.AnswerthequestionsbeloweachtextbychoosingA,B,CorD.

MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.(40points)

Text1

Comeon-Everybody'sdoingit.Thatwhisperedmessage,halfinvitationandhalfforcing,is

whatmostofusthinkofwhenwehearthewordspeerpressure.Itusuallyleadstono

good-drinking,drugsandcasualsex.ButinhernewbookJointheClub,TinaRosenbergcontends

thatpeerpressurecanalsobeapositiveforcethroughwhatshecallsthesocialcure,inwhich

organizationsandofficialsusethepowerofgroupdynamicstohelpindividualsimprovetheirlives

andpossiblytheword.

Rosenberg,therecipientofaPulitzerPrize,offersahostofexampleofthesocialcurein

action:InSouthCarolina,astate-sponsoredantismokingprogramcalledRageAgainsttheHaze

setsouttomakecigarettesuncool.InSouthAfrica,anHIV-preventioninitiativeknownas

LoveLiferecruitsyoungpeopletopromotesafesexamongtheirpeers.

Theideaseemspromising,andRosenbergisaperceptiveobserver.Hercritiqueofthe

lamenessofmanypubic-healthcampaignsisspot-on:theyfailtomobilizepeerpressurefor

healthyhabits,andtheydemonstrateaseriouslyflawedunderstandingofpsychology.Dareto

bedifferent,pleasedon,tsmoke!”pleadsonebillboardcampaignaimedatreducingsmoking

amongteenagers-teenagers,whodesirenothingmorethanfittingin.Rosenbergargues

convincinglythatpublic-healthadvocatesoughttotakeapagefromadvertisers,soskilledat

applyingpeerpressure.

Butonthegeneraleffectivenessofthesocialcure,Rosenbergislesspersuasive.JointheClub

isfilledwithtoomuchirrelevantdetailandnotenoughexplorationofthesocialandbiological

factorsthatmakepeerpressuresopowerful.Themostglaringflawofthesocialcureasifs

presentedhereisthatitdoesn'tworkverywellforverylong.RageAgainsttheHazefailedonce

statefundingwascut.EvidencethattheLoveLifeprogramproduceslastingchangesislimited

andmixed.

There'snodoubtthatourpeergroupsexertenormousinfluenceonourbehavior.An

emergingbodyofresearchshowsthatpositivehealthhabits-aswellasnegativeones-spread

throughnetworksoffriendsviasocialcommunication.Thisisasubtleformofpeerpressure:we

unconsciouslyimitatethebehaviorweseeeveryday.

Farlesscertain,however,ishowsuccessfullyexpertsandbureaucratscanselectourpeer

groupsandsteertheiractivitiesinvirtuousdirections.Ifsliketheteacherwhobreaksupthe

troublemakersinthebackrowbypairingthemwithbetter-behavedclassmates.Thetacticnever

reallyworks.Andthafstheproblemwithasocialcureengineeredfromtheoutside:inthereal

world,asinschool,weinsistonchoosingourownfriends.

21.Accordingtothefirstparagraph,peerpressureoftenemergesas

[A]asupplementtothesocialcure

[B]astimulustogroupdynamics

[C]anobstacletoschoolprogress

[D]acauseofundesirablebehaviors

22.Rosenbergholdsthatpublicadvocatesshould

[A]recruitprofessionaladvertisers

[B]learnfromadvertisers'experience

[C]stayawayfromcommercialadvertisers

[D]recognizethelimitationsofadvertisements

23.Intheauthor'sview,Rosenberg'sbookfailsto

[A]adequatelyprobesocialandbiologicalfactors

[B]effectivelyevadetheflawsofthesocialcure

[C]illustratethefunctionsofstatefunding

[D]producealong-lastingsocialeffect

24.Paragraph5showsthatourimitationofbehaviors

[A]isharmfultoournetworksoffriends

[B]willmisleadbehavioralstudies

[C]occurswithoutourrealizingit

[D]canproducenegativehealthhabits

25.Theauthorsuggestsinthelastparagraphthattheeffectofpeerpressureis

[A]harmful

[B]desirable

[C]profound

[D]questionable

Text2

Adealisadeal-except,apparently,whenEntergyisinvolved.Thecompany,amajorenergy

supplierinNewEngland,provokedjustifiedoutrageinVermontlastweekwhenitannouncedit

wasrenegingonalongstandingcommitmenttoabidebythestrictnuclearregulations.

Instead,thecompanyhasdonepreciselywhatithadlongpromiseditwouldnotchallenge

theconstitutionalityofVermonfsrulesinthefederalcourt,aspartofadesperateefforttokeep

itsVermontYankeenuclearpowerplantrunning.Ifsastunningmove.

Theconflicthasbeensurfacingsince2002,whenthecorporationboughtVermonfsonly

nuclearpowerplant,anagingreactorinVernon.Asaconditionofreceivingstateapprovalforthe

sale,thecompanyagreedtoseekpermissionfromstateregulatorstooperatepast2012.In2006,

thestatewentastepfurther,requiringthatanyextensionoftheplanfslicensebesubject

toVermontlegislature^approval.Then,too,thecompanywentalong.

EitherEntergyneverreallyintendedtolivebythosecommitments,oritsimplydidn'tforesee

whatwouldhappennext.Astringofaccidents,includingthepartialcollapseofacoolingtowerin

207andthediscoveryofanundergroundpipesystemleakage,raisedseriousquestionsabout

bothVermontYankee'ssafetyandEntergy'smanagement-especiallyafterthecompanymade

misleadingstatementsaboutthepipe.EnragedbyEntergy'sbehavior,theVermontSenatevoted

26to4lastyearagainstallowinganextension.

Nowthecompanyissuddenlyclaimingthatthe2002agreementisinvalidbecauseofthe

2006legislation,andthatonlythefederalgovernmenthasregulatorypowerovernuclearissues.

Thelegalissuesinthecaseareobscure:whereastheSupremeCourthasruledthatstatesdo

havesomeregulatoryauthorityovernuclearpower,legalscholarssaythatVermontcasewill

offeraprecedent-settingtestofhowfarthosepowersextend.Certainly,therearevalidconcerns

aboutthepatchworkregulationsthatcouldresultifeverystatesetsitsownrules.Buthad

Entergykeptitsword,thatdebatewouldbebesidethepoint.

ThecompanyseemstohaveconcludedthatitsreputationinVermontisalreadysodamaged

thatithasnotinglefttolosebygoingtowarwiththestate.Butthereshouldbeconsequences.

Permissiontorunanuclearplantisapoblictrust.Entergyruns11otherreactorsintheUnited

States,includingPilgrimNuclearstationinPlymouth.PledgingtorunPilgrimsafely,thecompany

hasappliedforfederalpermissiontokeepitopenforanother20years.ButastheNuclear

RegulatoryCommission(NRC)reviewsthecompany'sapplication,itshouldkeepitmindwhat

promisesfromEntergyareworth.

26.Thephrase"renegingon,,(Line3.para.1)isclosestinmeaningto

[A]condemning.

[B]reaffirming.

[C]dishonoring.

[D]securing.

27.Byenteringintothe2002agreement,Entergyintendedto

[A]obtainprotectionfromVermontregulators.

[B]seekfavorfromthefederallegislature.

[C]acquireanextensionofitsbusinesslicense.

[D]getpermissiontopurchaseapowerplant.

28.AccordingtoParagraph4,Entergyseemstohaveproblemswithits

[A]managerialpractices.

[B]technicalinnovativeness.

[C]financialgoals.

[D]businessvision

29.Intheauthor'sview,theVermontcasewilltest

[A]Entergy'scapacitytofulfillallitspromises.

[B]thematureofstates'patchworkregulations.

[C]thefederalauthorityovernuclearissues.

[D]thelimitsofstates'powerovernuclearissues.

30.Itcanbeinferredfromthelastparagraphthat

[A]Entergy'sbusinesselsewheremightbeaffected.

[B]theauthorityoftheNRCwillbedefied.

[C]EntergywillwithdrawitsPlymouthapplication.

[D]Vermonfsreputationmightbedamaged.

Text3

Intheidealizedversionofhowscienceisdone,factsabouttheworldarewaitingtobe

observedandcollectedbyobjectiveresearcherswhousethescientificmethodtocarryouttheir

work.Butintheeverydaypracticeofscience,discoveryfrequentlyfollowsanambiguousand

complicatedroute.Weaimtobeobjective,butwecannotescapethecontextofouruniquelife

experience.Priorknowledgeandinterestinfluencewhatweexperience,whatwethinkour

experiencesmean,andthesubsequentactionswetake.Opportunitiesformisinterpretation,

error,andself-deceptionabound.

Consequently,discoveryclaimsshouldbethoughtofasprotoscience.Similartonewlystaked

miningclaims,theyarefullofpotential.Butittakescollectivescrutinyandacceptanceto

transformadiscoveryclaimintoamaturediscovery.Thisisthecredibilityprocess,throughwhich

theindividualresearcher'sme,here,nowbecomesthecommunity'sanyone,anywhere,anytime.

Objectiveknowledgeisthegoal,notthestartingpoint.

Onceadiscoveryclaimbecomespublic,thediscovererreceivesintellectualcredit.But,unlike

withminingclaims,thecommunitytakescontrolofwhathappensnext.Withinthecomplexsocial

structureofthescientificcommunity,researchersmakediscoveries;editorsandreviewersactas

gatekeepersbycontrollingthepublicationprocess;otherscientistsusethenewfindingtosuit

theirownpurposes;andfinally,thepublic(includingotherscientists)receivesthenewdiscovery

andpossiblyaccompanyingtechnology.Asadiscoveryclaimworksitthroughthecommunity,the

interactionandconfrontationbetweensharedandcompetingbeliefsaboutthescienceandthe

technologyinvolvedtransformsanindividuafsdiscoveryclaimintothecommunity'scredible

discovery.

Twoparadoxesexistthroughoutthiscredibilityprocess.First,scientificworktendstofocus

onsomeaspectofprevailingKnowledgethatisviewedasincompleteorincorrect.Littlereward

accompaniesduplicationandconfirmationofwhatisalreadyknownandbelieved.Thegoalis

new-search,notre-search.Notsurprisingly,newlypublisheddiscoveryclaimsandcredible

discoveriesthatappeartobeimportantandconvincingwillalwaysbeopentochallengeand

potentialmodificationorrefutationbyfutureresearchers.Second,noveltyitselffrequently

provokesdisbelief.NobelLaureateandphysiologistAlbertAzent-Gyorgyioncedescribed

discoveryas“seeingwhateverybodyhasseenandthinkingwhatnobodyhasthought.But

thinkingwhatnobodyelsehasthoughtandtellingotherswhattheyhavemissedmaynotchange

theirviews.Sometimesyearsarerequiredfortrulynoveldiscoveryclaimstobeacceptedand

appreciated.

Intheend,credibility“happens”toadiscoveryclaim-aprocessthatcorrespondstowhat

philosopherAnnetteBaierhasdescribedasthecommonsofthemind."Wereasontogether,

challenge,revise,andcompleteeachother'sreasoningandeachother'sconceptionsofreason.

31.Accordingtothefirstparagraph,theprocessofdiscoveryischaracterizedbyits

[A]uncertaintyandcomplexity.

[B]misconceptionanddeceptiveness.

[C]logicalityandobjectivity.

[D]systematicnessandregularity.

32.ItcanbeinferredfromParagraph2thatcredibilityprocessrequires

[A]strictinspection.

[B]sharedefforts.

[C]individualwisdom.

[D]persistentinnovation.

33.Paragraph3showsthatadiscoveryclaimbecomescredibleafterit

[A]hasattractedtheattentionofthegeneralpublic.

[B]hasbeenexaminedbythescientificcommunity.

[C]hasreceivedrecognitionfromeditorsandreviewers.

[D]hasbeenfrequentlyquotedbypeerscientists.

34.AlbertSzent-Gydrgyiwouldmostlikelyagreethat

[A]scientificclaimswillsurvivechallenges.

[B]discoveriestodayinspirefutureresearch.

[C]effortstomakediscoveriesarejustified.

[D]scientificworkcallsforacriticalmind.

35.Whichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleofthetest?

[A]NoveltyasanEngineofScientificDevelopment.

[B]CollectiveScrutinyinScientificDiscovery.

[C]EvolutionofCredibilityinDoingScience.

[D]ChallengetoCredibilityattheGatetoScience.

Text4

IfthetradeunionistJimmyHoffawerealivetoday,hewouldprobablyrepresentcivilservant.

WhenHoffa'sTeamsterswereintheirprimein1960,onlyoneintenAmericangovernment

workersbelongedtoaunion;now36%do.In2009thenumberofunionistsinAmerica'spublic

sectorpassedthatoftheirfellowmembersintheprivatesector.InBritain,morethanhalfof

public-sectorworkersbutonlyabout15%ofprivate-sectoronesareunionized.

Therearethreereasonsforthepublic-sectorunions'thriving.Frst,theycanshutthings

downwithoutsufferingmuchinthewayofconsequences.Second,theyaremostlybrightand

well-educated.AquarterofAmerica'spublic-sectorworkershaveauniversitydegree.Third,they

nowdominateleft-of-centrepolitics.Someoftheirtiesgobackalongway.Britain'sLaborParty,

asitsnameimplies,haslongbeenassociatedwithtradeunionism.Itscurrentleader,EdMiliband,

oweshispositiontovotesfrompublic-sectorunions.

Atthestateleveltheirinfluencecanbeevenmorefearsome.MarkBaldassareofthePublic

PolicyInstituteofCaliforniapointsoutthatmuchofthestate'sbudgetispatrolledbyunions.The

teachers*unionskeepaneyeonschools,theCCPOAonprisonsandavarietyoflaborgroupson

healthcare.

Inmanyrichcountriesaveragewagesinthestatesectorarehigherthanintheprivateone.

Buttherealgainscomeinbenefitsandworkpractices.Politicianshaverepeatedly“backloaded”

public-sectorpaydeals,keepingthepayincreasesmodestbutaddingtoholidaysandespecially

pensionsthatarealreadygenerous.

Reformhasbeenvigorouslyopposed,perhapsmostegregiouslyineducation,wherecharter

schools,academiesandmeritpayallfaceddrawn-outbattles.Eventhoughthereisplentyof

evidencethatthequalityoftheteachersisthemostimportantvariable,teachers,unionshave

foughtagainstgettingridofbadonesandpromotinggoodones.

Asthecosttoeveryoneelsehasbecomeclearer,politicianshavebeguntoclampdown.In

WisconsintheunionshaveralliedthousandsofsupportersagainstScottWalker,thehardline

Republicangovernor.Butmanywithinthepublicsectorsufferunderthecurrentsystem,too.

JohnDonahueatHarvard'sKennedySchoolpointsoutthatthenormsofcultureinWestern

civilservicessuitthosewhowanttostayputbutisbadforhighachievers.TheonlyAmerican

public-sectorworkerswhoearnwellabove$250,000ayearareuniversitysportscoachesandthe

presidentoftheUnitedStates.Bankers,fatpaypacketshaveattractedmuchcriticism,buta

public-sectorsystemthatdoesnotrewardhighachieversmaybeamuchbiggerproblemfor

America.

36.Itcanbelearnedfromthefirstparagraphthat

[A]Teamstersstillhavealargebodyofmembers.

[B]JimmyHoffausedtoworkasacivilservant.

[C]unionshaveenlargedtheirpublic-sectormembership.

[D]thegovernmenthasimproveditsrelationshipwithunionists.

37.WhichofthefollowingistrueofParagraph2?

[A]Public-sectorunionsareprudentintakingactions.

[B]Educationisrequiredforpublic-sectorunionmembership.

[C]LaborPartyhaslongbeenfightingagainstpublic-sectorunions.

[D]Public-sectorunionsseldomgetintroublefortheiractions.

38.ItcanbelearnedfromParagraph4thattheincomeinthestatesectoris

[A]illegallysecured.

[B]indirectlyaugmented.

[C]excessivelyincreased.

[D]fairlyadjusted.

39.TheexampleoftheunionsinWisconsinshowsthatunions

[A]oftenrunagainstthecurrentpoliticalsystem.

[B]canchangepeople'spoliticalattitudes.

[C]maybeabarriertopublic-sectorreforms.

[D]aredominantinthegovernment.

40.JohnDonahue'sattitudetowardsthepublic-sectorsystemisoneof

[A]disapprovaL

[B]appreciation.

[C]tolerance.

[D]indifference.

PartB

Directions:

Inthefollowingtext,somesentenceshavebeenremoved.ForQuestions41-45,choosethe

mostsuitableonefromthelistA-Gtofitintoeachofthenumberedblanks.Therearetwoextra

choices,whichdonotfitinanyoftheblanks.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)

Thinkofthosefleetingmomentswhenyoulookoutofanaeroplanewindowandrealisethat

youareflying,higherthanabird.Nowthinkofyourlaptop,thinnerthanabrown-paperenvelope,

oryourcellphoneinthepalmofyourhand.lakeamomentortwotowonderatthosemarvels.

Ybuaretheluckyinheritorofadreamcometrue.

Thesecondhalfofthe20thcenturysawacollectionofgeniuses,warriors,entrepreneursand

visionarieslabourtocreateafabulousmachinethatcouldfunctionasatypewriterandprinting

press,studioandtheatre,paintbrushandgallery,pianoandradio,themailaswellasthemail

carrier.(41)

Thenetworkedcomputerisanamazingdevice,thefirstmediamachinethatservesasthe

modeofproduction,meansofdistribution,siteofreception,andplaceofpraiseandcritique.The

computeristhe21stcentury*sculturemachine.

Butforallthereasonstherearetocelebratethecomputer,wemustalsotreadwithcaution.

(42)1callitasecretwarfortworeasons.First,mostpeopledonotrealisethattherearestrong

commercialagendasatworktokeeptheminpassiveconsumptionmode.Second,themajorityof

peoplewhousenetworkedcomputerstouploadarenotevenawareofthesignificanceofwhat

theyaredoing.

Allanimalsdownload,butonlyafewupload.Beaversbuilddamsandbirdsmakenests.Yet

forthemostpart,theanimalkingdommovesthroughtheworlddownloading.Humansare

uniqueintheircapacitytonotonlymaketoolsbutthenturnaroundandusethemtocreate

superfluousmaterialgoods-paintings,sculptureandarchitecture-andsuperfluousexperiences

-music,literature,religionandphilosophy.(43)

Forallthepossibilitiesofournewculturemachines,mostpeoplearestillstuckindownload

mode.Evenaftertheadventofwidespreadsocialmedia,apyramidofproductionremains,with

asmallnumberofpeopleuploadingmaterial,aslightlylargergroupcommentingonormodifying

thatcontent,andahugepercentageremainingcontenttojustconsume.(44)

Televisionisaone-waytapflowingintoourhomes.Thehardesttaskthattelevisionasksof

anyoneistoturnthepoweroffafterhehasturnediton.

(45)

Whatcountsasmeaningfuluploading?Mydefinitionrevolvesaroundtheconceptof

"stickiness'1-creationsandexperiencestowhichothersadhere.

[A]Ofcourse,itispreciselythesesuperfluousthingsthatdefinehumancultureand

ultimatelywhatitistobehuman.Downloadingandconsumingculturerequiresgreatskills,but

failingtomovebeyonddownloadingistostriponeselfofadefiningconstituentofhumanity.

[B]Applicationslike,whichallowuserstocombinepictures,wordsandother

mediaincreativewaysandthensharethem,havethepotentialtoaddstickinessbyamusing,

entertainingandenlighteningothers.

[C]Notonlydidtheydevelopsuchadevicebutbytheturnofthemillenniumtheyhadalso

managedtoembeditinaworldwidesystemaccessedbybillionsofpeopleeveryday.

[D]Thisisbecausethenetworkedcomputerhassparkedasecretwarbetweendownloading

anduploading-betweenpassiveconsumptionandactivecreation-whoseoutcomewillshape

ourcollectivefutureinwayswecanonlybegintoimagine.

[E]Thechallengethecomputermountstotelevisionthusbearslittlesimilaritytooneformat

beingreplacedbyanotherinthemannerofrecordplayersbeingreplacedbyCDplayers.

[F]Onereasonforthepersistenceofthispyramidofproductionisthatforthepast

half-century,muchoftheworld'smediaculturehasbeendefinedbyasinglemedium-television

-andtelevisionisdefinedbydownloading.

[G]Thenetworkedcomputeroffersthefirstchancein50yearstoreversetheflow,to

encouragethoughtfuldownloadingand,evenmoreimportantly,meaningfuluploading.

PartC

Directions:

ReadthefollowingtextcarefullyandthentranslatetheunderlinedsegmentsintoChinese.

YourtranslationshouldbewrittenclearlyonANSWERSHEET2.(10points)

SincethedaysofAristotle,asearchforuniversalprincipleshascharacterizedthescientific

enterprise.Insomeways,thisquestforcommonalitiesdefinesscience.Newton'slawsofmotion

andDarwinianevolutioneachbindahostofdifferentphenomenaintoasingleexplicatoryframe

work.

(46)lnphysics,oneapproachtakesthisimpulseforunificationtoitsextreme,andseeksa

theoryofeverything—asinglegenerativeequationforallwesee.ltisbecominglessclear,

however,thatsuchatheorywouldbeasimplification,giventhedimensionsanduniversesthatit

mightentail,nonetheless,unificationofsortsremainsamajorgoal.

Thistendencyinthenaturalscienceshaslongbeenevidentinthesocialsciencestoo.

(47)Here,Darwinismseemstoofferjustificationforitallhumanssharecommonoriginsitseems

reasonabletosupposethatculturaldiversitycouldalsobetracedtomoreconstrainedbeginnings.

Justasthebewilderingvarietyofhumancourtshipritualsmightallbeconsideredformsofsexual

selection,perhapstheworld'slanguages,music,socialandreligiouscustomsandevenhistory

aregovernedbyuniversalfeatures.(48)Tofilteroutwhatisuniquefromwhatissharedmight

enableustounderstandhowcomplexculturalbehavioraroseandwhatguidesitinevolutionary

orcognitiveterms.

That,atleast,isthehope.Butacomparativestudyoflinguistictraitspublishedonlinetoday

suppliesarealitycheck.RussellGrayattheUniversityofAucklandandhiscolleaguesconsider

theevolutionofgrammarsinthelightoftwopreviousattemptstofinduniversalityinlanguage.

ThemostfamousoftheseeffortswasinitiatedbyNoamChomsky,whosuggestedthat

humansarebornwithaninnatelanguage—acquisitioncapacitythatdictatesauniversalgrammar.

Afewgenerativerulesarethensufficienttounfoldtheentirefundamentalstructureofalanguage,

whichiswhychildrencanlearnitsoquickly.

(49)Thesecond,bvJoshuaGreenberg,takesamoreempiricalapproachtouniversality

identifyingtraits(particularlyinwordorder)sharedbymanylanguagewhichareconsideredto

representbiasesthatresultfromcoanitiveconstraints

Grayandhiscolleagueshaveputthemtothetestbyexaminingfourfamilytreesthat

betweenthemrepresentmorethan2,000languages.(50)Chomsky'sgrammarshouldshow

patternsoflanquaqechangethatareinde