Automobile

KarlBenz's"Velo"model(1894)-enteredintothefirstautomobilerace

Anautomobile(fromGreekauto,selfandLatinmobilemoving,avehiclethatmovesitselfratherthanbeingmovedbyanothervehicleoranimal)ormotorcar(usuallyshortenedtojustcar)isawheeledpassengervehiclethatcarriesitsownmotor.Mostdefinitionsofthetermspecifythatautomobilesaredesignedtorunprimarilyonroads,tohaveseatingforonetoeightpeople,totypicallyhavefourwheels,andtobeconstructedprincipallyforthetransportofpeopleratherthangoods.However,thetermisfarfromprecisebecausetherearemanytypesofvehiclesthatdosimilartasks.

Therewere590millionpassengercarsworldwide(roughlyonecarforeveryelevenpeople)asof2002.

History

KarlBenz

ReplicaoftheBenzPatentMotorwagenbuiltin1885

AlthoughNicolas-JosephCugnotisoftencreditedwithbuildingthefirstself-propelledmechanicalvehicleorautomobileinabout1769,thisclaimisdisputedbysome,whodoubtCugnot'sthree-wheelereverran,whileothersclaimFerdinandVerbiest,amemberofaJesuitmissioninChina,builtthefirststeampoweredcararound1672.IneithercaseFran?oisIsaacdeRivaz,aSwissinventor,designedthefirstinternalcombustionenginewhichwasfuelledbyamixtureofhydrogenandoxygenandusedittodeveloptheworld'sfirstvehicletorunonsuchanengine.Thedesignwasnotverysuccessful,aswasthecasewithSamuelBrown,SamuelMorey,andEtienneLenoirwhoeachproducedvehiclespoweredbyclumsyinternalcombustionengines.

InNovember1881FrenchinventorGustaveTrouvédemonstratedaworkingthree-wheeledautomobile.ThiswasattheInternationalExhibitionofElectricityinParis.

AnautomobilepoweredbyanOttogasolineenginewasbuiltinMannheim,GermanybyKarlBenzin1885andgrantedapatentinJanuaryofthefollowingyearundertheauspicesofhismajorcompany,Benz&Cie.whichwasfoundedin1883.

AlthoughseveralotherGermanengineers(includingGottliebDaimler,WilhelmMaybach,andSiegfriedMarcus)wereworkingontheproblemataboutthesametime,KarlBenzisgenerallyacknowledgedastheinventorofthemodernautomobile.In1879Benzwasgrantedapatentforhisfirstengine,designedin1878.Manyofhisotherinventionsmadetheuseoftheinternalcombustionenginefeasibleforpoweringavehicleandin1896,Benzdesignedandpatentedthefirstinternalcombustionflatengine.

Approximately25Benzvehicleswerebuiltandsoldbefore1893,whenhisfirstfour-wheelerwasintroduced.Theywerepoweredwithfour-strokeenginesofhisowndesign.EmileRogerofFrance,alreadyproducingBenzenginesunderlicense,nowaddedtheBenzautomobiletohislineofproducts.BecauseFrancewasmoreopentotheearlyautomobiles,morewerebuiltandsoldinFrancethroughRogerthanBenzsoldinGermany.

DaimlerandMaybachfoundedDaimlerMotorenGesellschaft(DaimlerMotorCompany,DMG)inCannstattin1890andunderthebrandname,Daimler,soldtheirfirstautomobilein1892.By1895about30vehicleshadbeenbuiltbyDaimlerandMaybach,eitherattheDaimlerworksorintheHotelHermann,wheretheysetupshopafterfallingoutwiththeirbackers.BenzandDaimlerseemtohavebeenunawareofeachother'searlyworkandworkedindependently.

Daimlerdiedin1900andlaterthatyear,MaybachdesignedamodelnamedDaimler-Mercedes,special-orderedbyEmilJellinek.Twoyearslater,anewmodelDMGautomobilewasproducedandnamedMercedesaftertheengine.MaybachquitDMGshortlythereafterandopenedabusinessofhisown.RightstotheDaimlerbrandnameweresoldtoothermanufacturers.

KarlBenzproposedco-operationbetweenDMGandBenz&Cie.wheneconomicconditionsbegantodeteriorateinGermanyfollowingtheFirstWorldWar,butthedirectorsofDMGrefusedtoconsideritinitially.Negotiationsbetweenthetwocompaniesresumedseveralyearslaterandin1924theysignedanAgreementofMutualInterestvaliduntiltheyear2000.Bothenterprisesstandardizeddesign,production,purchasing,sales,andadvertising—marketingtheirautomobilemodelsjointly—althoughkeepingtheirrespectivebrands.OnJune28,1926,Benz&Cie.andDMGfinallymergedastheDaimler-Benzcompany,baptizingallofitsautomobilesMercedesBenzhonoringthemostimportantmodeloftheDMGautomobiles,theMaybachdesignlaterreferredtoasthe1902Mercedes-35hp,alongwiththeBenzname.KarlBenzremainedamemberoftheboardofdirectorsofDaimler-Benzuntilhisdeathin1929.

In1890,EmileLevassorandArmandPeugeotofFrancebeganproducingvehicleswithDaimlerengines,andsolaidthefoundationofthemotorindustryinFrance.ThefirstAmericancarwithagasolineinternalcombustionenginesupposedlywasdesignedin1877byGeorgeSeldenofRochester,NewYork,whoappliedforapatentonanautomobilein1879.InBritaintherehadbeenseveralattemptstobuildsteamcarswithvaryingdegreesofsuccesswithThomasRickettevenattemptingaproductionrunin1860.SantlerfromMalvernisrecognizedbytheVeteranCarClubofGreatBritainashavingmadethefirstpetrol-poweredcarinthecountryin1894followedbyFrederickWilliamLanchesterin1895butthesewerebothone-offs.ThefirstproductionvehiclescamefromtheDaimlerMotorCompany,foundedbyHarryJ.Lawsonin1896,andmakingtheirfirstcarsin1897.

In1892,GermanengineerRudolfDieselgotapatentfora"NewRationalCombustionEngine".In1897hebuiltthefirstDieselEngine.In1895,SeldenwasgrantedaUnitedStatespatent.Patent)foratwo-strokeautomobileengine,whichhinderedmorethanencourageddevelopmentofautosintheUnitedStates.Steam,electric,andgasolinepoweredautoscompetedfordecades,withgasolineinternalcombustionenginesachievingdominanceinthe1910s.

Althoughvariouspistonlessrotaryenginedesignshaveattemptedtocompetewiththeconventionalpistonandcrankshaftdesign,onlyMazda'sversionoftheWankelenginehashadmorethanverylimitedsuccess.

RansomE.Olds.

Production

Thelarge-scale,production-linemanufacturingofaffordableautomobileswasdebutedbyRansomOldsathisOldsmobilefactoryin1902.ThisconceptwasthengreatlyexpandedbyHenryFord,beginningin1914.

Asaresult,Ford'scarscameoffthelineinthreeminuteintervals,muchfasterthanpreviousmethods,increasingproductionbyseventoone(requiringman-hoursbefore,1hour33minutesafter),whileusinglessmanpower.Itwassosuccessful,paintbecameabottleneck.OnlyJapanblackwoulddryfastenough,forcingthecompanytodropthevarietyofcolorsavailablebefore1914,untilfast-dryingDurcolacquerwasdevelopedin1926.In1914,anassemblylineworkercouldbuyaModelTwithfourmonths'pay.

Ford'scomplexsafetyprocedures—especiallyassigningeachworkertoaspecificlocationinsteadofallowingthemtoroamabout—dramaticallyreducedtherateofinjury.Thecombinationofhighwagesandhighefficiencyiscalled"Fordism,"andwascopiedbymostmajorindustries.TheefficiencygainsfromtheassemblylinealsocoincidedwiththetakeoffoftheUnitedStates.Theassemblylineforcedworkerstoworkatacertainpacewithveryrepetitivemotionswhichledtomoreoutputperworkerwhileothercountrieswereusinglessproductivemethods.

Fordatonepointconsideredsuingothercarcompaniesbecausetheyusedtheassemblylineintheirproduction,butdecidedagainst,realizingitwasessentialtocreationandexpansionoftheindustryasawhole.

Intheautomotiveindustry,itssuccesswasdominating,andquicklyspreadworldwide.FordFranceandFordBritainin1911,FordDenmark1923,FordGermany1925;in1921,CitroenwasthefirstnativeEuropeanmanufactuertoadoptit.Soon,companieshadtohaveassemblylines,orriskgoingbroke;by1930,250companieswhichdidnothaddisappeared.

Developmentofautomotivetechnologywasrapid,dueinparttothehundredsofsmallmanufacturerscompetingtogaintheworld'sattention.Keydevelopmentsincludedelectricignitionandtheelectricself-starter(bothbyCharlesKettering,fortheCadillacMotorCompanyin1910-1911),independentsuspension,andfour-wheelbrakes.

FordModelT,1927,regardedasthefirstaffordableautomobile

Sincethe1920s,nearlyallcarshavebeenmass-producedtomeetmarketneeds,somarketingplanshaveoftenheavilyinfluencedautomobiledesign.ItwasAlfredP.Sloanwhoestablishedtheideaofdifferentmakesofcarsproducedbyonecompany,sobuyerscould"moveup"astheirfortunesimproved.

Reflectingtherapidpaceofchange,makessharedpartswithoneanothersolargerproductionvolumeresultedinlowercostsforeachpricerange.Forexample,inthe1930s,LaSalles,soldbyCadillac,usedcheapermechanicalpartsmadebyOldsmobile;inthe1950s,Chevroletsharedhood,doors,roof,andwindowswithPontiac;bythe1990s,corporatedrivetrainsandsharedplatforms(withinterchangeablebrakes,suspension,andotherparts)werecommon.Evenso,onlymajormakerscouldaffordhighcosts,andevencompanieswithdecadesofproduction,suchasApperson,Cole,Dorris,Haynes,orPremier,couldnotmanage:ofsometwohundredcarmakersinexistencein1920,only43survivedin1930,andwiththeGreatDepression,by1940,only17ofthosewereleft.

InEurope,muchthesamewouldhappen.MorrissetupitsproductionlineatCowleyin1924,andsoonoutsoldFord,whilebeginningin1923tofollowFord'spractiseofverticalintegration,buyingHotchkiss(engines),Wrigley(gearboxes),andOsberton(radiators),forinstance,aswellascompetitors,suchasWolseley:in1925,Morrishad41%oftotalBritishcarproduction.MostBritishsmall-carassemblers,fromAutocrattoMeteoritetoSeabrook,tonameonlythree,hadgoneunder.CitroendidthesameinFrance,comingtocarsin1919;betweenthemandthecheapcarsinreply,Renault's10CVandPeugeot's5CV,theyproduced550000carsin1925,andMors,Hurtu,andotherscouldnotcompete.Germany'sfirstmass-manufacturedcar,theOpel4PSLaubfrosch(TreeFrog),cameoffthelineatRusselsheimin1924,soonmakingOpelthetopcarbuilderinGermany,with%ofthemarket.

Design

The1955Citro?nDS;revolutionaryvisualdesignandtechnologicalinnovation.

Thedesignofmoderncarsistypicallyhandledbyalargeteamofdesignersandengineersfrommanydifferentdisciplines.Aspartoftheproductdevelopmentefforttheteamofdesignerswillworkcloselywithteamsofdesignengineersresponsibleforallaspectsofthevehicle.Theseengineeringteamsinclude:chassis,bodyandtrim,powertrain,electricalandproduction.Thedesignteamundertheleadershipofthedesigndirectorwilltypicallycompriseofanexteriordesigner,aninteriordesigner(usuallyreferredtoasstylists),andacolorandmaterialsdesigner.Afewotherdesignerswillbeinvolvedindetaildesignofbothexteriorandinterior.Forexample,adesignermightbetaskedwithdesigningtherearlightclustersorthesteeringwheel.Thecolorandmaterialsdesignerwillworkcloselywiththeexteriorandinteriordesignersindevelopingexteriorcolorpaints,interiorcolors,fabrics,leathers,carpet,woodtrim,andsoon.

In1924theAmericannationalautomobilemarketbeganreachingsaturation.Tomaintainunitsales,GeneralMotorsinstitutedannualmodel-yeardesignchanges(alsocreditedtoAlfredSloan)inordertoconvincecarownerstheyneededareplacementeachyear.Since1935automotiveformhasbeendrivenmorebyconsumerexpectationsthanengineeringimprovement.

TherehavebeenmanyeffortstoinnovateautomobiledesignfundedbytheNHTSA,includingtheworkoftheNavLabgroupatCarnegieMellonUniversity.RecenteffortsincludethehighlypublicizedDARPAGrandChallengerace.

Acceleration,braking,andmeasuresofturningoragilityvarywidelybetweendifferentmakesandmodelsofautomobile.Theautomotivepublicationindustryhasdevelopedaroundtheseperformancemeasuresasawaytoquantifyandqualifythecharacteristicsofaparticularvehicle.

Fuelandpropulsiontechnologies

Mostautomobilesinusetodayarepropelledbygasoline(alsoknownaspetrol)ordieselinternalcombustionengines,whichareknowntocauseairpollutionandarealsoblamedforcontributingtoclimatechangeandglobalwarming.Increasingcostsofoil-basedfuelsandtighteningenvironmentallawandrestrictionsongreenhousegasemissionsarepropellingworkonalternativepowersystemsforautomobiles.Effortstoimproveorreplacethesetechnologiesincludehybridvehicles,electricvehiclesandhydrogenvehicles.

Diesel

DieselenginedcarshavelongbeenpopularinEuropewiththefirstmodelsbeingintroducedinthe1930sbyMercedesBenzandCitroen.ThemainbenefitofDieselsarea50%fuelburnefficiencycomparedwith27%inthebestgasolineengines.Adownsideofthedieselisthepresenceintheexhaustgasesoffinesootparticulatesandmanufacturersarenowstartingtofitfilterstoremovethese.Manydieselpoweredcarscanalsorunwithlittleornomodificationson100%biodiesel.

Gasoline

Gasolineengineshavetheadvantageoverdieselinbeinglighterandabletoworkathigherrotationalspeedsandtheyaretheusualchoiceforfittinginhighperformancesportscars.Continuousdevelopmentofgasolineenginesforoverahundredyearshasproducedimprovementsinefficiencyandreducedpollution.Thecarburetorwasusedonnearlyallroadcarenginesuntilthe1980sbutitwaslongrealisedbettercontrolofthefuel/airmixturecouldbeachievedwithfuelinjection.Indirectfuelinjectionwasfirstusedinaircraftenginesfrom1909,inracingcarenginesfromthe1930s,androadcarsfromthelate1950s.GasolineDirectInjection(GDI)isnowstartingtoappearinproductionvehiclessuchasthe2007BMWMINI.Exhaustgasesarealsocleanedupbyfittingacatalyticconverterintotheexhaustsystem.Cleanairlegislationinmanyofthecarindustriesmostimportantmarketshasmadebothcatalystsandfuelinjectionvirtuallyuniversalfittings.Mostmoderngasolineenginesarealsocapableofrunningwithupto15%ethanolmixedintothegasoline-oldervehiclesmayhavesealsandhosesthatcanbeharmedbyethanol.Withasmallamountofredesign,gasoline-poweredvehiclescanrunonethanolconcentrationsashighas85%.100%ethanolisusedinsomepartsoftheworld(suchasBrazil),butvehiclesmustbestartedonpuregasolineandswitchedovertoethanoloncetheengineisrunning.MostgasolineenginedcarscanalsorunonLPGwiththeadditionofanLPGtankforfuelstorageandcarburetionmodificationstoaddanLPGmixer.LPGproducesfewertoxicemissionsandisapopularfuelforforklifttrucksthathavetooperateinsidebuildings.

Ethanol

Ethanolandotheralcoholfuelshavewidespreaduseaautomotivefuel.Mostalcoholshavelessenergyperliterthangasolineandareusuallybendedwithgasoline.Alcoholsareusedforavarietyofreasons-toincreaseoctane,toimproveemissionsandasanalternativetopetroleumbasedfuel,sincetheycanbemadefromagriculturalcrops.Brazil'sethanolprogramprovidesabout20%ofthenationsautomotivefuelneeds,includingseveralmillioncarsthatoperateonpureethanol.

Electric

TheHenneyKilowatt,thefirstmodern(transistor-controlled)electriccar.

2007TeslaelectricpoweredRoadster

Thefirstelectriccarswerebuiltaround1832wellbeforeinternalcombustionpoweredcarsappeared.Foraperiodoftimeelectricswereconsideredsuperiorduetothesilentnatureofelectricmotorscomparedtotheveryloudnoiseofthegasolineengine.ThisadvantagewasremovedwithHiramPercyMaxim'sinventionofthemufflerin1897.Thereafterinternalcombustionpoweredcarshadtwocriticaladvantages:1)longrangeand2)highspecificenergy(farlowerweightofpetrolfuelversusweightofbatteries).Thebuildingofbatteryelectricvehiclesthatcouldrivalinternalcombustionmodelshadtowaitfortheintroductionofmodernsemiconductorcontrolsandimprovedbatteries.Becausetheycandeliverahightorqueatlowrevolutionselectriccarsdonotrequiresuchacomplexdrivetrainandtransmissionasinternalcombustionpoweredcars.Somepost-2000electriccardesignssuchastheVenturiFétishareabletoacceleratefrom0-60mph(96km/h)insecondswithatopspeedaround130mph(210km/h).Othershavearangeof250miles(400km)ontheEPAhighwaycyclerequiring3-1/2hourstocompletelycharge.Equivalentfuelefficiencytointernalcombustionisnotwelldefinedbutsomepressreportsgiveitataround135mpg(1.74l/100km).

Steam

Steampower,usuallyusinganoilorgasheatedboiler,wasalsoinuseuntilthe1930sbuthadthemajordisadvantageofbeingunabletopowerthecaruntilboilerpressurewasavailable.Ithastheadvantageofbeingabletoproduceverylowemissionsasthecombustionprocesscanbecarefullycontrolled.Itsdisadvantagesincludepoorheatefficiencyandextensiverequirementsforelectricauxiliaries.

Gasturbine

Inthe1950stherewasabriefinterestinusinggasturbine(jet)enginesandseveralmakersincludingRoverproducedprototypes.Inspiteofthepowerunitsbeingverycompact,highfuelconsumption,severedelayinthrottleresponse,andlackofenginebrakingmeantnocarsreachedproduction.

Rotary(Wankel)engines

RotaryWankelengineswereintroducedintoroadcarsbyNSUwiththeRo80andlaterwereseeninseveralMazdamodels.Inspiteoftheirimpressivesmoothness,poorreliabilityandfueleconomyledtothemlargelydisappearing.Mazda,beginningwiththeRX-2,hascontinuedresearchontheseengines,overcomingmostoftheearlierproblemswiththeRX-7andRX-8.

Safety

Resultofaserious.

Roadtrafficinjuriesrepresentabout25%ofworldwideinjury-relateddeaths(theleadingcause)withanestimatedmilliondeaths(2004)eachyear.

Automobileaccidentsarealmostasoldasautomobilesthemselves.EarlyexamplesincludeMaryWard,whobecameoneofthefirstdocumentedautomobilefatalitiesin1869inParsonstown,Ireland,andHenryBliss,oneoftheUnitedState'sfirstpedestrianautomobilecasualtiesin1899inNewYork.

Carshavemanybasicsafetyproblems-forexample,theyhavehumandriverswhocanmakemistakes,wheelsthatcanlosetractionwhenbraking,turningoraccelerationforcesaretoohigh,andmechanicalsystemssubjecttofailure.Collisionscanhaveveryseriousorfatalconsequences.Somevehicleshaveahighcenterofgravityandthereforeanincreasedtendencytorollover.

Earlysafetyresearchfocusedonincreasingthereliabilityofbrakesandreducingtheflammabilityoffuelsystems.Forexample,modernenginecompartmentsareopenatthebottomsothatfuelvapors,whichareheavierthanair,venttotheopenair.Brakesarehydraulicanddualcircuitsothatatotalbrakingfailureisveryrare.Systematicresearchoncrashsafetystartedin1958atFordMotorCompany.Sincethen,mostresearchhasfocusedonabsorbingexternalcrashenergywithcrushablepanelsandreducingthemotionofhumanbodiesinthepassengercompartment.Thisisreflectedinmostcarsproducedtoday.

Airbags,amoderncomponentofautomobilesafety

SignificantreductionsindeathandinjuryhavecomefromtheadditionofSafetybeltsandlawsinmanycountriestorequirevehicleoccupantstowearthem.Airbagsandspecialisedchildrestraintsystemshaveimprovedonthat.Structuralchangessuchasside-impactprotectionbarsinthedoorsandsidepanelsofthecarmitigatetheeffectofimpactstothesideofthevehicle.Manycarsnowincluderadarorsonardetectorsmountedtotherearofthecartowarnthedriverifheorsheisabouttoreverseintoanobstacleorapedestrian.Somevehiclemanufacturersareproducingcarswithdevicesthatalsomeasuretheproximitytoobstaclesandothervehiclesinfrontofthecarandareusingthesetoapplythebrakeswhenacollisionisinevitable.Therehavealsobeenlimitedeffortstouseheadsupdisplaysandthermalimagingtechnologiessimilartothoseusedinmilitaryaircrafttoprovidethedriverwithabetterviewoftheroadatnight.

Therearestandardtestsforsafetyinnewautomobiles,liketheEuroNCAPandtheUSNCAPtests.TherearealsotestsrunbyorganizationssuchasIIHSandbackedbytheinsuranceindustry.

Despitetechnologicaladvances,thereisstillsignificantlossoflifefromcaraccidents:About40,000peopledieeveryyearintheUnitedStates,withsimilarfiguresinEuropeannations.Thisfigureincreasesannuallyinstepwithrisingpopulationandincreasingtravelifnomeasuresaretaken,buttheratepercapitaandpermiletraveleddecreasessteadily.Thedeathtollisexpectedtonearlydoubleworldwideby2020.Amuchhighernumberofaccidentsresultininjuryorpermanentdisability.ThehighestaccidentfiguresarereportedinChinaandIndia.TheEuropeanUnionhasarigidprogramtocutthedeathtollinhalfby2010,andmemberstateshavestartedimplementingmeasures.

Automatedcontrolhasbeenseriouslyproposedandsuccessfullyprototyped.Shoulder-beltedpassengerscouldtoleratea32gemergencystop(reducingthesafeinter-vehiclegap64-fold)ifhigh-speedroadsincorporatedasteelrailforemergencybraking.Bothsafetymodificationsoftheroadwayarethoughttobetooexpensivebymostfundingauthorities,althoughthesemodificationscoulddramaticallyincreasethenumberofvehiclesabletosafelyuseahigh-speedhighway.Thismakescleartheoften-ignoredfactroaddesignandtrafficcontrolalsoplayapartincarwrecks;uncleartrafficsigns,inadequatesignallightplacing,andpoorplanning(curvedbridgeapproacheswhichbecomeicyinwinter,forexample),alsocontribute.

EconomicsandImpacts

ThehydrogenpoweredFCHV(FuelCellHybridVehicle)wasdevelopedbyToyotain2005

Costandbenefitsofownership

Thecostsofautomobileownership,whichmayincludethecostof:acquiringthevehicle,repairs,maintenance,fuel,depreciation,parkingfees,tirereplacement,taxesandinsurance,areweighedagainstthecostofthealternatives,andthevalueofthebenefits-perceivedandreal-ofvehicleownership.Thebenefitsmayincludepersonalfreedom,mobility,independenceandconvenience.

Costandbenefitstosociety

Similarlythecoststosocietyofencompassingautomobileuse,whichmayincludethoseof:maintainingroads,pollution,publichealth,healthcare,andofdisposingofthevehicleattheendofitslife,canbebalancedagainstthevalueofthebenefitstosocietythatautomobileusegenerates.Thesocietalbenefitsmayinclude:economybenefits,suchasjobandwealthcreation,ofautomobileproductionandmaintenance,transportationprovision,societywellbeingderivedfromleisureandtravelopportunities,andrevenuegenerationfromthetaxopportunities.Theabilityforhu