語義學(xué)復(fù)習(xí)佛腳大全魚太郎一、填空西方主流語言學(xué)派：Traditionalphilology(lexicalmeaning),historicalcomparativeL(lexicalmeaning),structuralL(littleattentiontomeaning),functionalL(meaningcentertheory),TGgrammar(standardtheory),cognitiveL(meaningcentertheory)語言學(xué)不同的研究方式與觀點(diǎn)：specificvsgeneral,synchronicvsdiachronic,macrolinguisticsvsmicrolinguistics,thoeriticalvsapplied,descriptivevsprescriptive結(jié)構(gòu)主義學(xué)派代表人物：Saussure,bloomfield系統(tǒng)功能派代表人物：Firth,M.A.K.Halliday(Ideationalmeaning,interpersonalmeaning&textualmeaning)轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法代表人物:Chomsky(6大階段:nativism,universalgrammar,autonomy,modularity,formalism,deduction；6變：TGgrammar,standardtheory,extendedstandardtheory,revisedextendedstandardtheory,government&blindingtheory,minimalistprogram),Katz(在standardtheory階段引入語義成分，使phonology,semantics&syntax成為三大分支)認(rèn)知語言學(xué)代表人物：Lakoffjackendoff語言學(xué)三大革命：StructualistL(Saussure:studylanguageitself)—TGgrammar(Chomsky:studymind)—CognitiveL(Lakoff:studyembodiment)Saussure的革命--兩分法：19世紀(jì)語言學(xué)主流：speech,external,diachronic,entity.(Chomsky棄之)認(rèn)知語言學(xué)對TG的六大批判基礎(chǔ)：embodiment,specificsideofL,cognitivestrategies,formandmeaning,non-formalism,inductionanddeduction.Analyticphilosophy包括logicalempiricism和ordinarylanguagephilosophy.前者代表有Frege,Russel,Wittgenstein(前期),Schlick,Carnap,Tarski,Davidson,Morris等，后者代表有Moore,Wisdom,Wittgenstein(后期)，Austin,Grice,Searle.西方哲學(xué)簡史的三大轉(zhuǎn)向： Onotologicalturn—epistemologyturn—linguisticturn。從perceptualism來說是nominalism,重perception和individualism,從rationalism來說是realism,重reasoning,universals,scholasticism語義學(xué)分支：philosophicalvslinguisticS/formalvscognitiveS/extensionalvs.intensional/synchronicvsdiachronic/structualistS/TG/RadicalS./FuzzyS/cognitiveSstructuralistsemantics的詞義是由paradigmaticrelations和syntagmaticrelations組成，兩大steps是semanticfield和componentialanalysis.TG產(chǎn)生的語義學(xué)派：Interpretative(Chomsky,Katz:sentencepriority),generative(Lakoff:semanticspriority),Casegrammar(Fillmore:deepcaseframe),Chafesemanticstheory(Chafe),decompositionalsemantics(Katz&Fodor：lexicon&projectionrule)著名理論對應(yīng)人名：提出分析句和綜合句的是：HumeBehaviorism的倡導(dǎo)者：Bloomfield系統(tǒng)意義(Sense)的提出，現(xiàn)代語義學(xué)開創(chuàng)者：Frege外延論(denotational)與表征論(representational)的劃分：Saade語義場：J.Trier語義成分分析法：Lounsbury,Goodenough詞義關(guān)系&句義關(guān)系：Kempson語義公設(shè)(meaningpostulate)：Carnap(1957)語義標(biāo)示(semanticmarker):Katz真值條件論：Tarski語義三角：Ogden&Richards符號學(xué)(semiotics)的trilogy：Morris&Peirce(syntax,semantics&pragmatics)行為語義論：Watson建構(gòu)論：PiagetSpeechact是最小的語言交流單位：Searle禮貌原則，面子保全原則：Brown&Levinson關(guān)聯(lián)理論：Sperber&wilson新格萊斯理論：Levinson(Quality>Manner>Information)動態(tài)語用學(xué)：JennyThomas按時間順序分，語義學(xué)包括philologyperiod,traditionals,moderns.(logicals—structualistsfTGs—CognitiveS)語義產(chǎn)生之前對它的評價：dirtyword,Cinderella,dustman,no-man^slandetc.意義有哪些理論？referencetheory(Russel:nominalism,realism),ideationaltheory(Frege),verificationtheory(schlick,carnap:prinicipleofconfirmability),truthvaluetheory(Tarski,Frege),Usetheory(Peirce),Behavioristtheory(bloomfiled,Watson:stimulus-response),thetheoryofsituation(Firth,Halliday, Austin:speechact:locutionary,illocutionary,perlocutionary,felicityconditions), thetheoryofIntention(Grice:ConversationalImplicature,CP,Levinson,Searle),theoryofcomponentialanalysis,theoryofsubstitution,theoryofrelation(Saussure),phenomenologicaltheory(Husserl),existentialisttheory(Heidegger),deconstructionaltheory(Derrida:tracetheory)等Leech對語義學(xué)的七分法(hepta-division)：conceptualmeaning(=sense),connocativem,socialm,affectivem,reflectedm,collocativem,thematicm.Sense = sense relations(word:hyponymy,synonymy,autonymy,ambiguity/sentence:entailment,paraphrase,contraction,aubiguious)+senseproperties(words:predicationfeatures/sentence:analyticsentence永真&syntheticsentence可真)語義三角：ConceptSymbol(signifier) Object(signifee)TG句法的生成之道？基礎(chǔ)部分是phrasestructure&lexicon,經(jīng)過deepstructure，到一系列的轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則，包括compositionality,projectionrule&collocativerules，最后到達(dá)surfacestructure，由meaning&phonology來表征(其中l(wèi)exicon的內(nèi)容是partofspeech,semanticfeatures,semanticrestriction)(Projectionrule包括embedding,attachment,conversion)UG包括principle+parameterTG中語義是解釋句法的，語義是為句法服務(wù)的，所以才有intrepretativesemantics.而decompositionalS是巧妙地運(yùn)用CA到TG的frame來解釋語義。TG的哲學(xué)本質(zhì)是blendingphilosophy.CaseGrammar處理的是深層格框的問題，S=modality+propositionWittgenstein提出了gametheory,meaning-in-use,picturetheory(屬于referencethory的一部分).

Speechact包括：assertive,directive,commissive,expressive,declarative.Felicitycondiction包括:propositionalcontentrules,preparatoryrule,sincerityrule,essenetialrule語言三要素：phonetics,grammar&meaning中國古代意義理論最高成就是：王夫之第一部訓(xùn)詁學(xué)工具書：《爾雅》Behavioristschool說“圣人立象以盡其意…故曰鼓之舞以盡神也。邏輯語義學(xué)研究語言形式化(formalization)問題，借用數(shù)理邏輯學(xué)來描寫意義，代表人有Frege,Russell,Tarski,Carnap等。模糊語義學(xué)中的graytheory由鄧聚龍?zhí)岢?。從研究?nèi)涵語義學(xué)的carnap到可能語義學(xué)的Kripke，Montague都是屬于意義范疇.述元結(jié)構(gòu)中，五大基本語義成分：figure,ground,motion,path,manner邏輯包括formallogic&dialecticallogic,其中前者包括induction&deduction符號(notations)與代表：V=forall.E=thereexist,~=negation,&=conjuction,V=disjunction,f=implication,==equivalence.30命題演算中,必然p30命題演算中,必然p反對必然非p可能p下反對可能非pP&q全真才為真，pVq單真都為真，pfqp真q假才假，p=q同值才真語義公設(shè)包括hyponymy:Vx(A(x)fB(x))，synonymy:Vx(A(x)fB(x))&Vx(B(x)fA(x)),autonymy:Vx(A(x)f~B(x)).Predication=argument+predicate=semanticcomponents(這是TGS的基礎(chǔ))，注意判斷幾元謂詞二元謂詞的關(guān)系：symmetry,transitivity,reflexivity.歸納法的組成：inductivereasoningandothers形式邏輯的基本規(guī)律：同一：a=a，矛盾：aMa，排中(excludedmiddle)：a=aoraMaMontague語義學(xué)包括：truthconditionals,modeltheoretics,possibleworlds,以及PTQ(解決qualifier,verbtense,subjectivemood)語義對立詞舉例：fireman,overlook,overlie認(rèn)知語言學(xué)主要觀點(diǎn)：embodiedview,conceptualization,encyclopediaview,prototypetheory,Imgageschema,metaphor(structuralmetaphor,orientationalm,ontologicalm),iconicityviewCMview.(model&frame),parableview體驗(yàn)哲學(xué)的三原則：embodimentofthemind,unconsciousnessofcognition,metaphoricalnatureofthinkingCircularmodel(Saussure)conceptflinguisticsounds—transmissionfthoughtformationLinearModel(Shannon&Weaver):informationsourcefsignaltransmissionfchannelfreceiverfdestinationTriangularModel(Newcomb)強(qiáng)調(diào)作用在A,B間的X是socialenvironmentTrapezoidModel(Leech):6steps包括texual,ideational,interpersonal的交流ConicModel(王寅):媒介是form,核心是meaning.模式是PV/WRGS這是以context為基礎(chǔ)，以expression為方式，以encoding&decoding和deduction為機(jī)制的過程。字典定義的方法：genus+differentia.情感意義中的舉例：propaganda:derogatorymeaning/empiricism:commendatorymeaning/liberalism:commendatorymeaning/sophisticated:neutralmeaning意義擴(kuò)展的方式：radiation&concatenation主動義與被動義：同源形容詞含active&passivemeaning,eg.Desirousvs.disirableNB:物為主語，則被動意義，人為主語，則主動意義主觀義與客觀義：-ed,+to主觀；-ing,+for客觀，eg.Suspicious好猜忌、可疑的。主題義與次要義：topicsentence—supportingsentences(induction),supportingsentencesftopicsentence(reduction)在discoursemeaning中特別注意connectives的重要性，把握篇章的frame.非常規(guī)搭配有哪些？rhetoric,zeugma&syllepsis,newapplicationofidioms,fromillogicaltonormalHeavy的搭配決定哪些語義？如heavyblow,heavycrop,heavynews等搭配在教學(xué)中的應(yīng)用：WPSprogram,wordassociationexercises.兩種動詞：durativev(=linearmeaning),terminativev.(=dottedmeaning)充分必要性的研究：sufficientcondition中，有甲必有乙，無甲可能無乙,necessarycondition中，無甲必?zé)o乙，有甲可能有乙，necessary+sufficientcondition：有甲有乙，無甲無乙。所以得出durativeconditionIf(necessary)?(sufficient) terminativeverbnecessarysufficientdurativeconditionII56.點(diǎn)性動詞有：die,stop,finish,leave,lose,marry,arrive,reach,knock,hit；線性動詞有l(wèi)ive,work,study,sleep,wait,eat,play,rain,run,study,speak,go,watch點(diǎn)性其他有：at,since,when,ifonly,till(until)；線性其他有：during,for,while,aslongas,till(until),for5days,since1978；點(diǎn)性的體是perfectiveaspect,generalaspect，線性的體是progressiveaspect,generalaspect.(點(diǎn)點(diǎn)相連，線線相接）57點(diǎn)性動詞+進(jìn)行體的三種例外情況：duration,repeatedaction,upcomingaction58終延體與動靜體的關(guān)系：DurativeTerminativeExampleActionVAsk,call,help,listen,lookProcessVChange,grow,widen,matureFeelingVVAche,feel,hurt,itchTransitionVArrive,die,leave,loseTransientVHit,jump,kick,knockEmotionVHate,love,believe,desireRelationshipVBe,belong,cost,deserve59 “black"的石化：sun-tanned工blackskin,blacktea,ferrousmetal...60選擇文章標(biāo)題應(yīng)該用superordinate,但不可太大，正確的上下義關(guān)系是從concrete至Uabstract.Peirce關(guān)于sign的三分法：Icon(image,diagram,metaphor),index,symbolLakoff&Johnson提出metaphoricalcognitivetheory:通過人類的認(rèn)知和推理將一個概念域(conceptualdomain)系統(tǒng)對應(yīng)地映合(map)到另一個概念域。Microsystem:At:Dot(能量聚集，如pointat)-On:surfece(論，關(guān)于：onpractice)-In:aspect(穿衣：inred,insilks)象似性發(fā)展的時期：stalemateperiodfsaussurianperiod(arbitrariness)fpost-saussurianperiod(iconicity)句法&現(xiàn)實(shí)具有Isomorphy(同構(gòu)性)哪些象似性？iconicsequencing(SVO),iconicproximity(如help的例子)，iconicquantity,markediconicityVendler四大時間圖解：state,activity,accomplishment,achievement1997年在蘇黎世召開語言與文學(xué)中的象似性的會議(最近的一次)補(bǔ)充：69.Thisrulerandthispenarelong:L(a)&L(b)70.InRGSPlane,onefactorbasedonwhichRcoulddeferthemeaningofPisacommongeneralizedmeaningandsimilarsituationssharedbyPandR.Cognitiveschool與Chomsky'sFormalistSemanticsschool相抗衡。Taboo屬于numeralIconicityGenericsentence類扌旨句：asentenceinwhichsamestatementismadeaboutawholeofindividuals.(有the或a引導(dǎo))structurallinguistics的基本哲學(xué)理論是analyticalphilosophy而TG的是formalism.referringexpression扌旨稱語：isanyexpressionusedinanutterancetorefertosthorsb.(itcannotbeexchangedwithpredicates,cuzthereisnocontinuumrunningfromthem.)Leech對語言有多種定義，其中他相信meaning=observablesituation.necessaryconditiononthesenseofapredicateisaconditionwhichthingmustmeetinordertoqualifyasbeingcorrectlydescribedbythatpredicate.反義詞的種類：gradable,relational,complementary79白馬非馬理論是：GongsunLong提出的。Sememeisthesmallestsemanticunitwhichisindivisible.Leech的connotativemeaning是與additionalsubjectivemeaning有關(guān)的compositeexpression(合成原貝V)是為了解釋Frege'sPrinciple.Snowiswhiteistrueifandonlyifsnowiswhite是Tarski說的。Extensionals與intensionals的區(qū)另U是ExtensionalSregardsthereferenceasthecentreoftheirstudy.Semantics最早是誰使用的？MichaelBreal(EssaydeSemantique)Thetheoryofintegrationcanbedescribedasthewholeismorethanhecompositionofitsparts.equativesentenceisonewhichisusedtoasserttheidentityofthereferentsoftworeferringexpressions.dictionary的property有?interconnectedness,completenessofcoverage,precision.analyticity是asensepropertyofsentences.stereotype與prototype有什么區(qū)別？stereotype指的是具體特征，prototype指的是entity.cognitivelinguitics的哲學(xué)與心理基礎(chǔ)是：embodimentphilosophy,embodimentmentalism美國三大pragmatistphilosophers是WilliamJames,Peirce&JohnDeweyidiomsarenamingunitsDonald,Davison提出:togivetruthconditionawayofgivingthemeaningofthesentence.95.XXXisaman.是one-placepredicate.Synonymy是arelationbetweentwopredicatesthathavethesamesense.sentenceisagrammaticallycompletestringofwordsexpressingacompletethough.Lyons按功能把意義分為：descriptive,social&expressive.99語義學(xué)作為獨(dú)立學(xué)科發(fā)行的書籍是：Semantics:studiesinthescienceofmeaning.100不是deicticword的是place，而易誤判不是的是today.101常判斷哪個不是predicate?youLogicalsemantics的代表人物是Montague.Sapir-WhorfHypothesis兩大要旨是linguisticdeterminism&linguisticrelativity.104現(xiàn)代句意理論創(chuàng)始者是Katz.105既有唯名論又有唯實(shí)論的是荀子（正名篇）coreoflinguiticlogic是：byanalyzinglogicalproblems,peoplecansolvelinguiticproblemsLeech的梯形圖的缺點(diǎn)是：沒有考慮進(jìn)meaningincommunication.Logicalpositivism是誰提出的：Schlick.二、簡單/論述題什么是語義學(xué)：a.semanticsisabranchoflinguisticsdealingwiththemeaningofwords,phrasesandsentences,however,contrarytopragmaticsitdoesnotanalyzetheintendedspeakermeaning,orwhatwordsdenoteonagivenoccasion,buttheobjective,conventionalmeaninginanarrowsense.synonymofsenseorcontentareciprocalandreverisblerelationshipbetweennameandsense.Sense與Reference的區(qū)別：（先給出定義，再做區(qū)別）SenseisthecongnitivecontentassociatedwithasignandreferenceistheobjecttowhichthesignreferstoReferenceisconcernedwiththerelationbetweenalinguisticandnon-linguisticunit.wordswithmeaninghavesensebutnotalwayshavereference.Thesamesensemayhavethedifferentreferences.Thesamereferencemayderivefromthedifferentsenses.Inthedictionary,onlythesensecanberecordedasentry.Sense,whichisradical,isthecoreofthemeaningwhilereference,astheperipherizedmember,isnotthatimportant.Senseischaracterizedbystabilityandexplicitness,whereasreferenceisfeaturedbychangeablityandfuzziness.Senseislimitedwhilereferenceisendless.Senseisabstractformoftheworldwhilstreferenceisconcrete.Propositionandsentencemeaningareallsensewhileutterancemeaningbelongtopositition,sentence和utterance的區(qū)別？（先定義，再區(qū)分）propositionisthatpartofthemeaningoftheutteranceofadeclarativesentencewhichdescribessomestateofaffairs.Sentenceisagrammaticallycompletestringodwordsexpressingacompletethought.Utteranceisanystretchoftalk,byoneperson,beforeandafterwhichthereissilenceonthepartofthatperson.Intermsofcategory,propositionbelongstologics,sentencebelongstosyntaxandutterancebelongstopragmatics.Withregardtoproperties,propositionisabstract,sentenceissomewhatconcreteandutteranceismoreconcrete.Intermsofcreteria,propositionreliesontruthcondition,sentencereliesongrammaticalityandutterancedependsonacceptablity.Astotherelationshipwiththelanguage,propositionhavenothingtodowiththespecificlanguage,whilesentenceandutterancebelongstosomelanguage.Astothedialects,propositionandsentencehavenorelationwithit,whileutterancereliesonit.Intermsofmeterality,thecaseisthesamewithe.Withregardtothesentencepattern,propositionisadeclarativesentence,whileothersarenotlimited.Astotherelationshipwiththemeaning,propositionisthecentreofthemeaningwhichisstableandhasmeaningpotential,sentencecanreflectacertainsenseindifferentpattern,whiletheutterancecanbevariousinmeaningwhichisdeductiveandreal.Asforentailment,PfS,U/S—U/P,S—UAsforambiguity,thereisnoambiguityinpropositionwhiletheothertwomayinvolvesomedegreesofambiguity.Intermsofexpression,propositionisexpressedinlogicalformula,whileothertwoarevariousinsyntacticandpragmaticcategories.什么是訓(xùn)詁學(xué)(Chinesetraditionalsemantics)?意在研究名實(shí)之爭，中國傳統(tǒng)研究古書上詞義的學(xué)科，是傳統(tǒng)語文學(xué)的小分支。它在魏晉時形成獨(dú)立學(xué)科，清末章太炎發(fā)展到高峰，但它和語義學(xué)是“兩股道上跑的車”中西語義學(xué)怎樣結(jié)合？communication,translation,practicewiththeory語義形式化的優(yōu)點(diǎn)？repretemeaningsystematicallyandscentificallyb.easytofindtheerrorc.pavethewayforcomputerizationd.clearifythesenserelatione.showtheambiguity.區(qū)另Ufuzzy,vague,ambiguous&hedgewordsFuzzy:clearintensionbutunclearextensionVague:severalsenseinanentryAmbiguous:indifferententries.Hedge:somedegreewordseg:about,aroundetc.語言模糊的特征：a.objectivity&universalityb.scope,prototypeandmembershipdegreec.unbalanced.communication&pragmatisms語言模糊的原因：a.objectiveorigin:theworldweliveinisacontinuousentityandhardtofindtheclearboundaryb.subjectivecause:ourcognitionontheworlddiffersfrompersontoperson,c.Linguisticcause:therearecountlessthingsintheworldbutourlanguageislimitedtoexpressthem.10人們怎樣理解含糊表達(dá)？a.relativeexactnessb.prototypicalityc.collocariond.contexte.morequestions.中西語義對比研究？(Humboldt&Saussure為例)Humboldt認(rèn)為漢語缺乏語法標(biāo)志，漢語具有非語音表達(dá)形式，漢語有一定文化特性,Saussure認(rèn)為漢語理據(jù)程度最低(motivation),—個字符代表一個詞。評價：H較S更加科學(xué)客觀。Petrification的程度？a.totallywrongequalityb.partiallyequalityc.emotionaldiscrepancyPetrification的原因？a.Namesofthingsaredifferentindifferentplacesb.customsandculturalbackgroundaredifferentc.theintrinsicfeaturesofdifferentlanguagearedifferent怎樣防止petrification?A.Explicitlyundertandthemeaninginthecontextb.usebilinguialdictionary.C.understandtheculturebackgroundd.dealwithunlearnproblem.Dunderstandingwordswhileusingposition定義？Itisthatpartofthemeaningoftheutteranceofadeclarativesentencewhichdescribessomestatesofaffairs.reference的定義？arelationshipbetweenaparticularobjectintheworldandanexpressionusedinanutterancetopickthatobjectout.sense的定義？anexpressionisitsrelationshiptosemanticallyequivalentorsemanticallyrelatedexpressionsinthesamelanguage.補(bǔ)充：18.EvaluatetheSemanticTriangle?ItisproposedbyOgdenandRichards,inwhichthesymbolreferstothelinguisticelements,thereferentreferstoobjectintheworldandthoughtreferstotheconcept.Therefore,thesymbolofawordsignifiesthingsbyvirtueoftheconcept.Inthissystem,concepthasdirectrelationshipwithreferentandsymbolbutsymbolhasnodirectrelationshipwithreferentjustbecauseonethingcanbeexpressedindifferentwords.Intermsofitsshortcomings,itpoorlydealswithpolysemouswords,anditdoesn'thavesemanticmeaningwhenbeingdividedintomorpheme,andonlyafewwordshavethe“signified"andsometimestheyhavedifferentmeaningssothatwecannotdifferentiatethemetc.Allthesentenceswhichcontainambiguouswordsareambiguous,andallthesentenceswhichcontainnoambiguouswordsareunambiguous?判斷分析No,Themeaningofthesentenceistosaythatalltheambiguitiesarecausedbyambiguouswords.Itisjustaboutsentenceambiguityontheleveloflexicon.Whilethesentenceambiguityhastwolevels一lexicallevelresultingfromambiguityofawordreflectedbyhomonymyandpolysemyandgrammaticallevelresultingfromdifferentrelationshipsofwords.Therefore,whetherasentenceisambiguousisnotdecidedbyifthereisanyambiguouswordinit,sometimesevenasentencecontaininganambiguouswordisnotambiguous.Howmanykindsofmeaningdidlinguistsfindandstudy?Friesmakesatraditionaldistinctionbetweenlexicalmeaningandstructuralmeaning,andthenLeechfurtherdividesthemintosevencategories,namelyconceptualmeaning,connotativemeaning,socialmeaning,affectivemeaning,reflectedmeaning,thematicmeaningandcollocativemeaning.Infact,accordingtoWangYin,meaningcanbedividedintomanytypesfromdifferentangles,namely,speaker'smeaningandhearer'smeaningfromtherolesplayedbyparticipants,naturalmeaningandnon-naturalmeaninginthelightofcommunicativeessence,morphememeaning,wordmeaning,sentencemeaningandutterancemeaningfromdifferentstructure,intensionalandextensionalmeaningphilosophically,descriptive,socialandexpressivemeaningrespectivelybyLyons,conceptualmeaningandattachedmeaningaccordingtothedifferentroles,finallytheproposition,sentenceandutterancemeaning.21Howmanysemanticrelationsarethereamongsentence?GiveexampleFour.A.paraphase,eg.Iloveyou=Iamfondofyou.b.entailment.Eg.Tommarriedablondheiressentailsmarkmarriedablondc.contradiction.Eg.Weareunmarriedcouplesd.ambuguity.EgIgiveyouthehammerandsawthroughthewindow.What'sarbitrariness?Youropinionaboutitincontrasttoiconicity?Arbitrariness,proposedbySaussure,referstothefactthattheformoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeaning,whichisthefirstprincipleoflanguage.Butinmyopinion,heoverstateditsimportance,ignoringthefactthatsignifierandsignifiedhaveacertainmotivation.Ontheotherhand,iconicity,proposedbyPierce,referstothefactthatsignifierandsignifiedarenotarbitrary,butmotivated.Inmyview,iconicityisnotanabsolutenegationofarbitrarinessbutacomplementaryfeature.Theyarebothdesignfeaturesoflanguageatdifferentlevels.Atthelowerlevel,arbitrarinessplaysabiggerrolewhileatahigherone,iconicityoverwhelmsarbitrariness.However,totalarbitrarinessmeansatotalnegationofmappingsbetweenhumanconceptandlanguage.Featuresof2placepredicates?Symmetrical/symmetrical,semanticformulaiswrittenasAxy(M(x.y)LM(y,x,)).Transitive/Intransitive,showanattributelikebehindaboveandinfrontof,whichgoeslikeAxyz(R(x,y)&R(y,z)—R(x,z))Reflexive/Irreflexivehavethefollowingsemanticmeaningasequal,identical,Axy(x,y尸R(x,x)Tellthedifferencebetweenpourhimadrinkandpouradrinktohim?Accordingtothecognitivelinguitics,iconicityofdistance,ifpouriscloselyfollowedbyhim,thenthepersonisprobablybepresented,theotherexpressiondoesn'thavethissense.TranslatesentencesintologicalformsAnnisBill'smother.M(a,b)BilllovesCarol,andCarollovesBill.L(b,c)&L(c,b)AnnlovesBill,butAnndoesn'tloveCarol.L(a,b)&?L(a,c)What'sfeaturesofmetaphoraccordingtocognitivelinguistics?Conventionalityindicatesthatsomemetaphorshavebecomefossilizedordeadmetaphors.Systematicityreferstothewaythatmetaphordoesn'tjustsetupasinglepointofcomparison.asymmetryreferstothewaythatmetaphorsaredirectionalwhichmeanstheyprovokethelistenerorreadertotransferfeaturesfromthesourcetotargetdomain.abstractionmeansthatmetaphorusesamoreconcretesourcetodescribeamoreabstracttarget.Whatdoyouthinkofsemanticformalization?Meritanddemerit?Semanticformalization,whichusesmathematicallogictodescribelanguagemeaning,isoneofthemainstreamsofinevitablesemanticresearch.Merits:a.interpretmeaningmorescientificallyandsystemicallyb.easytocheckordiscovertheerrorsc.helpfultomachinetranslationdinterpretsenserelationsmoreexactlye.formulatetheambiguity.Demerits:a.insufficienttoclarifythecomplicatedsemanticrulesb.makeslanguagechangeintosomestarkormechanicalsigns.C.cannotincludeallkindsofsemanticphenomenon.D.toocomplicatedtobeunderstood.E.somewordscannotbeinterpretedbyformulationinasubtleway.F.theydon'thavethesameformat.What'sthedisadvantageofNamingTheory?Itregardsthatthereisadirectrelationshipbetweenthewordformanditsreference.Thedisadvantageofitisthefollowingthrees.A.allthewordshavesense,butnoteverywordhasitsreferent.B.linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations.C.thereareoccasionswhenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense.29區(qū)別一堆概念？Meaning:associationoflanguagesymbolswiththerealworld.Concept:impressionofobjectsinpeople'smind.Connotation:impliedmeaning,similartoimplicature.Sense:lexicalpositioninwhichawordfindsitself.Denotation:isnotdirectlyrelatedwithobjectsbutmaketheabstractassumptionoftherealworld.Reference:theworld-objectrelationshipImplicature:convesationimplicatureisachievedbyintentionallyviolatingtheCP.Signification:themeaningofawordtaughttopupilsmaynothaveanycommunicativevalue.DifferencebetweencognitivelinguiticsandTGL?TGLinguiticsbelongstoformalism.Itisauniversalgrammar.TGlinguististsconsiderlanguageasautonomoussystem,inprincipleindependentofotherknowledgeandcompetence.InTGLmeaningcanbedescribedbytruth-valueandproductionispriortogeneralization.Whilecognitivelinguiticsbelongstofunctionalism.Cognitivelinguististsconsiderthestructuresofgrammarandmeaningchangewithdifferentlanguagesandcompetenceisonepartofhuman'sgeneralcognitivecompetence.Meaningcannotbedescribedbytruth-value.Itisancourseofobjectiveandsubjectivecourseinteracted.CognitiveLconsiderthatgeneralizationispriortoproduction.Differencebetweenprototypeandstereotype?Stereotypeisalistofthetypicalcharacteristicsofthingstowhichthepredicatemaybeappliedwhileprototypeisatypicalmemberofitsextension.Thestereotypeofapredicatemayoftenspecifyarangeofpossibilitiesbutanindividualprototypeofthispredicatewillnecessarilytakesomeparticularplacewithinthisrange.Intermsofspeakers,theymayknowthesterotypebutnotfamiliarwithprototype.MainpointsheldbyNominalismandRealism?In1976,PalmerputforwardtheNamingtheorydividedinto2categories;nominalismandrealism.Themainpointsoftheformeristhatsignalbearsnoinherentrelationshipwithitsreferentwhilethelatteristherelationshipbetweensignalanditsreferentisintrinsic.Majorprinciplesaboutformalsemantics?a.compositionalityb.ruletorulehypothesisc.fragmentaryapproachd.mostcertainprincipleIstheactofaddressingsb.Illocutionaryorperlocutionary?Illocutionary.Becausetheillocutionaryactinherentinanutteranceisintendedbythespeaker,isunderhisfullcontrol.Ifitisevident,itissoastheutteranceismade.Intheactofaddressing,itissththataspeakercandecideforhimselftodo,andbesureofdoingitwhenhedecidestodoit.Thehearerinaspeechsituationcannotdecidewhethertobeaddressedornot.Relationshipbetweeninterpretativesemanticsandgenerativesemantics?Interpretivesemantics(Chomsky,Katz)isapartofChomsky'sTGgrammarwhichholdsmeaningcomesfromsyntax,sosyntaxgoesfirst,semanticsisonlyapartofsyntaxwhichcaninterpretesentences,whichisthegoalofsemantics.Besides,syntaxisbetweenphonologyandsemanticsandsyntaxisgrammaticalbase.AccordingtoCho,therearetwosetsofrulesinTG,transfermationalandprojectionruleswhichdealswithproblemofsyntaxandphonologyandsemanticsrespectively.Generativesemantics(Lakoff)statesthatsyntaxcomesfromsemantics,semanticsgoesfirst.Allsentencescomesfromsemantics,whichwillgeneratethesurfacestructurewiththehelpoftransformationalrulesandphonticsrules.Theroleofsemanticsisnottointerpretbuttogenerate.Moveover,generativesemanticianthinktransformationalrulesareenoughwhicharealsobeingcalledpredicate-liftingtransformations.Differencesbetweenmetaphorandmetonymy?Ametaphorisaconceptualexpressioninwhichthecharactersofthesourcedomainismappedontothetargetdomainwhereasametonymyinvolvestheconceptualmappingtakingplaceacrossdifferentsub-domainswithinthesamecommonorsuperordinateexperientialdomainsothatthesourcedomainmentallyactivatesthetargetdomain.Soitisclearthatmetaphorrelatestotwodomainswhilemetonymyoccurswithinthesamedomain.Metaphoriscognitivelymoreusefulwhilethemajorfunctionofmetonymyistohelpthehearertolocateorrecognizethereferentanditsspecialcharacteristics.What'ssynonymy?Itisusedtomeansamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Dictionarymakersrelyontheexistenceofsynonymyfortheirdenifition.Somesemanticiansmaintainsthattherearenorealsynonymsbecausetwoormorewordsnamedsynonymsareexpectedwithoutexceptiontodifferfromoneanotherinoneofthefollowingaspects,egshades,stylistics,emotive,ranggofuseetc.StatetheGameTheory?ItisWittgensteinlaterphilosophy.Thetermisintroducedbydescribingsomeexamplesofsimpleprctices,bothrealandimaginar