1、畢業(yè)論文寫(xiě)作講座,Paper Writing,Foreign Language Department West Anhui University October, 2009,1.1 Types of Research Papers,a) What is a Research Paper? b) Types of Research Papers 1. Report research paper 2. Argumentative research paper,1.2 Steps in Writing a Research Paper (1),Choose a subject suiting bot

2、h your interest and practicality,Find your supervisor,Writing literature review and preparing research tools,Hand in your research proposal to your supervisor,Set your title,Continue reading and taking notes if your supervisor agree,1.2 Steps in Writing a Research Paper (2),Draft the body of the pap

3、er,Are you satisfied? (Remember that you have limited time),Redraft all or part of the paper,Deliver questionnaires, do interviews, observations, tests, etc. if you use them as research instruments,Draft the introduction and conclusion,Collect data and then analyze them,Edit for mechanical errors (s

4、uch as spelling and punctuation),Are you satisfied that there are no other errors?,Relax!,Add the cover page (with your name, the title, etc.),Hand the paper in to your supervisor,Add citations and bibliography,1.2 Steps in Writing a Research Paper (3),1.6 What makes a good dissertation?,Quality of

5、writing (detailed) Economy of language. e,g., condense clauses into phrases; manage long sentences by connecting and pausing (e.g., pause before elaborating); break long sentences into shorter units; use parallel structure to make the connection for the reader Precise word choice. e,g., use the most

6、 exact / appropriate words that capture your meaning (not necessarily long) ,1.4 What makes a good dissertation?, Specific inferences and conclusions that are true now are discussed in the present tense. ,1.4 What makes a good dissertation?,Some tricky words in English. e.g., “data” is plural. The d

7、ata are accurate. “Datum” is the singular. “Effect” is a countable noun (e.g., has an effect on ). Careful use of articles: “the” and “a” or “an” ,1.4 What makes a good dissertation?,* There is no simple way to eliminate all errors in writing. Use American or British English consistently,1.4 What ma

8、kes a good dissertation?,Characteristics of a good dissertation: = Evaluative criteria (goals/right route),References,Menasche, L. (1997). Writing a Research Paper. Revised edition. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. Zhang, H. X. Dissertation Writing. Unpublished PPT Files. School of Forei

9、gn Studies, Anhui University, 2006. 楊永林 著. “易得”論文設(shè)計(jì)與學(xué)術(shù)寫(xiě)作專(zhuān)家系統(tǒng)(Research Development Made Easy -A Computer-based Design System for Academic Writing). 北京：高等教育出版社， 2005.8,2.1.4 Reading source materials (1),Books Books are among the best sources in which to discover a topic for research. You should always

10、 remember that you are only trying to find materials for your topics. Therefore, what you need to do is to skim a books introduction, contents, index and a few chapters in order to see whether this book is appropriate to your own interests.,2.1.4 Reading source materials (2),Periodicals Periodicals

11、are usually published monthly, bimonthly or quarterly. They contain more current information, opinions and up-to-date reports. In addition, the information provided by periodicals may also be more specific and detailed, which better facilitates relevant research.,2.1.4 Reading source materials (3),I

12、nternet resources Most students have easy access to the Internet. They can log on to look for materials needed for their research. Online resources are helpful both for finding a topic and for searching for specific information. When deciding on a topic, students may surf on the net for related topi

13、cs, essays and books that might trigger an idea for a topic. The most frequently used search engines in China include “”, “”, and “”, etc.,2.3 Vocabulary use in paper writing (1),a) Avoid using long words just because they sound more academic, especially if you are not totally sure of their meaning.

14、 b) Check the spelling of common words, so as to pick up errors such as affect/ effect confusion, its/ its and their/ there confusion.,2.3 Vocabulary use in paper writing (2),c) Avoid informal, spoken style: it does not sound very serious. Use formal academic written words. Not someone but a person

15、or a speaker you one, learners, students, children, a lot of much, many, a great many, several, numerous, a number of, a great number of, a large number of, a great amount of, a large amount of, a great deal of really highly, greatly, very, somewhat, decidedly, undoubtedly, certainly, proven, totall

16、y.,2.3 Vocabulary use in paper writing (3),d) Avoid contractions: they sound informal and rushed. Use uncontracted forms. Not dont but do not cant can not wont will not Ive I have Ill” I will Im I am lets let us e) Write words out in full rather than abbreviations such as ads and info.,2.3 Vocabular

17、y use in paper writing (4),f) There is a language policy to observe equal opportunities. Here are some of our recommendations: Avoid gender-specific words e.g. male-sounding nouns, when you want to refer to males and females: it sounds as if you are not considering half the population. Use nouns tha

18、t could be male or female or both. Not man or men but humans, workers, students the child.his children.their businessmen business people a man a person mankind humanity headmaster head teacher camera-men camera-operators chairman/woman she is the Chair,2.3 Vocabulary use in paper writing (5),Avoid u

19、sing the pronoun he and adjective his to refer to people of both sexes. For example, use: All students must hand their work in on time. Not Every student must hand his work in on time. Avoid starting sentences with connectors that are short and conversational: it does not sound serious and organized

20、. Use more weighty connectors. Not And but In addition, Moreover But However, On the other hand, By contrast.,2.3 Vocabulary use in paper writing (6),Avoid dropping the that at the beginning of subordinate clauses: it is conversational. Academic language contains the full form. Not the language they

21、 use but the language that they use the way the natives do the way that the natives do I think it is good I think that it is good I do not think there will be I do not think that there will be,Chapter 3 Taking Notes,3.1 Why taking notes? Taking notes while reading the collected literature helps stud

22、ents to record the information, to document the source, to understand and organize the ideas stimulated by their reflections on what they have read. Careful note-taking can ensure that the students appropriately credit authors for their original ideas, facts, and direct quotations. In addition, well

23、-written and well-organized notes make it easier and more efficient to write the paper.,Some people like to take notes on sheets of paper or in a notebook; some prefer to take notes on cards while others choose to take notes on computers.,3.2 Finding relevant books and articles,An essential step at

24、the beginning of your research is to find out what sources will help you locate relevant books and articles in your subject area. Typically, these sources are catalogs, indexes, and bibliographies: Catalogs Indexes Bibliographies (or reference lists),3.3 Evaluation of sources,It is necessary to eval

25、uate the sources before starting reading and taking notes. Students should not always take what is in print as correct. Pay attention to all the information about the publication. Pay attention to information which leads to the authors attitude. Pay attention to the sources. Pay attention to the obj

26、ectivity of the sources.,3.4 Content of notes,The content of a note includes whatever a student thinks he or she might need for his or her research paper. Important thoughts, ideas, quotes, facts or statistics often make up the content of a note.,To be specific, a note usually includes the following

27、 items: 1. The background information; 2. A summary of general ideas supporting the preliminary thesis statement; 3. Explanatory information such as definition, a plot summary and bibliographical data; 4. Direct quotations, examples, facts and anecdotes; 5. Statistics such as percentages, weights, a

28、mount of money, ratios and dates.,3.5 Tips on Note-taking (1),3.5.1 Documenting sources Document the source before writing down the information, i.e. write down the author, the title, the place of publication, the publisher, the date of publication or the copyright date, and the page number (s) wher

29、e the information is found. The documentation varies according to types of sources: books, magazines, journals, newspapers, electronic databases, and the Internet.,3.5 Tips on Note-taking (2),3.5.2 Being thorough and concise Write down neither too much nor too little in taking notes. In other words,

30、 “be both thorough and concise”. Write down what is necessary, namely, what is relevant to the topic of the paper but unknown in or different from other sources.,3.5 Tips on Note-taking (3),3.5.3 Putting one item on one card Write each item on a separate card. If more than one piece of information i

31、s put on one card, the student might mix the topics or sources, and as a result, get confused when he or she goes about writing the paper. One item on one card helps the student reshuffle and rearrange information.,3.5 Tips on Note-taking (4),3.5.4 A sample,3.6 Types of notes,There are four major ty

32、pes of notes: direct quotations paraphrase notes summary notes combination notes,3.6.1 Direct quotation notes Use direct quotations only when other words, phrases, structures fail to express the information better than those in the original source. e.g. However, direct quotations must be used discri

33、minately because it generally accounts for only ten to twenty percent of a paper.,Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics is the field that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.” Spolsky, Bernard. Soci

34、olinguistics. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1998:3,3.6.2 Paraphrase notes Paraphrase means accurately restating the original information in ones own words and phrasing, without any additional comments or elaborations. A paraphrase note is usually of the same length with the original. Although quotation marks a

35、re not used in paraphrase notes, proper documentation is necessary.,3.6.3 Summary notes A summary note summarizes the major points of the original by restating them in the writers own words. Some key words of the original may be used, but they must be put in quotation marks. Again a summary note mus

36、t be properly documented.,3.6.4 Combination notes A combination note, as the name implies, is one that combines direct quotation, paraphrase and summary. Its advantage lies in the fact that it adopts flexible note-taking methods.,3.7 Taking notes on computers,Some guidelines for taking notes on comp

37、uters: 1. Be familiar with a word processing program such as Microsoft Word; 2. Begin a new note on a new page; 3. Write some keywords on each page; 4. Put the notes with the same keywords into a single file.,3.8 Avoiding plagiarism,Plagiarism is “the use of facts, opinions, and language taken from

38、another writer without acknowledgement” (Ding and Wu 151). It is defined in dictionaries as stealing and using the ideas or writings of another person as ones own. It must be clearly understood and carefully avoided by anyone writing a research paper.,Plagiarism is a grave offence and a serious brea

39、ch of ethics in higher education. Neither lack of intent nor claiming that one does it accidentally can protect him or her from severe penalty, which might be the failure of a course, the deprival of his or her diploma, or permanent expulsion.,Emphasizing the importance of avoiding plagiarism does n

40、ot mean that other peoples opinions and ideas cannot be used. On the contrary, it is a good indication of ones extensive research and sincere attitude of study if one quotes properly.,3.8.1 Forms of Plagiarism Plagiarism can be deliberate or accidental. Deliberate plagiarism happens when one copies

41、the work of others and pretends that it is his or her own without acknowledgement. Accidental plagiarism or unconscious plagiarism happens when one does not intend to plagiarize, but fails to cite the sources appropriately. Unconscious plagiarism can be paraphrases with no citation or misplaced cita

42、tions.,Paraphrases with no Citation Paraphrase is an accurate restatement of the original in ones own words. Plagiarism occurs when one uses the original words in his or her paraphrase or uses the original sentence structure though in his or her own words and phrases, but fails to include a citation

43、.,Misplaced Citations All cited materials from the same sources if used several times must be documented separately. Otherwise, the quotation will be regarded as plagiarism because other people would think what is placed after the reference of the source as the writers own comment or reflection.,3.8

44、.2 Tips on Avoiding Plagiarism Careful note-taking and a clear understanding of the rules of quotation, paraphrase, and summary can prevent one from plagiarism. Meriwethers guidelines may be helpful: 1. Always put quotation marks around any direct statement from someone elses work; 2. Give credit to

45、 the author for any paraphrase of his or her ideas or statements, even though quotation marks are not used, because these ideas are clearly not your own;,3. Reference any material, ideas, or thoughts you found in a specific source if it is evident that they came from your reading and are not common

46、knowledge; 4. Do not reference material that is common knowledge.,5. Reference any summary-even if it is in your own words-of a discussion from one of your sources; 6. Reference any charts, graphs, or tables that are created by others or that you make with someone elses information. Put the referenc

47、e immediately below the title of the chart, graph, or table.,Chapter 4 Writing the Paper,4.1 Developing thesis statement and working out an outline,(usually a single sentence that formulates both the topic and the point of view of a paper. It can enable the student to see where he or she is heading

48、and help him or her remain on a productive path during the process of planning and writing.),What is a thesis statement and its function?,4.1 Developing thesis statement and working out an outline,There are two important factors to be considered in writing a thesis statement: 1) the purpose of the p

49、aper; 2) the audience the student has in mind.,4.1 Developing thesis statement and working out an outline,(a useful framework that assists in the organization and writing of the research paper. Preparing an outline can help students reevaluate the materials and decide which pieces of information are

50、 relevant to the purposes of the paper and discover the connections between the pieces.),What is an outline and its function?,4.1 Developing thesis statement and working out an outline,It is true that students may use whatever form they find comfortable in working out an outline. Here we recommend a

51、 type of outline called decimal outline, in which decimal divisions indicate successive headings:,4.1 Developing thesis statement and working out an outline,1. Major heading 1.1 Minor heading 1.1.1 Detail heading Example heading Example heading .1 Minor example heading

52、.2 Minor example heading 1.1.2 Detail heading 1.2 Minor heading 2. Major heading ,A Sample Outline,Outline: 1. Major Steps in the Writing Process 1.1 Organizing 1.2 Writing the first draft 1.3 Evaluating 1.4 Revising 2. Writing Programs for the Microcomputer 2.1 Types of Programs and Their Relations

53、hip to the Writing Process 2.1.1 Thought Use in organizing 3. Future Possibilities of computer Programs for Writing 3.1 Rapid change ,4.2 Producing a first draft,With the thesis and outline done, now it is time to get ready to produce a first draft. First of all, lets see the following sever

54、al questions: Which part to begin with? Should elements of the outline fit into the paper as expected? At this stage, which is more important? ideas or grammar, punctuation and spelling? (flow of creative juices),4.2 Producing a first draft,4.2.1 Writing the introduction An introduction has two esse

55、ntial purposes: 1) to engage the reader 2) to explain clearly what the paper is about. The idea is to both interest and inform the reader.,4.2 Producing a first draft,Lester believes that the introduction must establish several things within the first few paragraphs: Subject (identify your specific

56、topic, and then define, limit, and narrow it to one issue) Background (Provide relevant historical data) Problem (Point of a research paper is to explore or resolve a problem) Thesis sentence (use it to establish the direction of the study and to point your readers toward your eventual conclusions),

57、4.2 Producing a first draft,There are a few ways to begin an introduction. The following are widely practised. Starting with an Anecdote Providing Background Information Defining a Key Term Challenging an Assumption or an Authority,4.2 Producing a first draft,Generally speaking, your introduction sh

58、ould cover at least the following several points: Stating the general context of your topic Indicating what your paper will focus on Giving a very brief summary of the main points,4.2 Producing a first draft,4.2.2 Writing the Body The body is the most important part of a research paper. It usually takes up to 80% of the whole paper, and it develops the thesis statement logically. Lester sets the following checklist in writing the body of a paper: Analysis Presentation Paragraphs,4.2 Producing a firs