1、Intercultural Communication,Zeng Xiangmin 2012,3. Intercultural interaction: verbal communication and non-verbal communication,3.1 Verbal process 3.1.1 Cultural differences in word meanings 3.1.2 Cultural differences in syntactical patterns 3.1.3 Cultural differences in pragmatics 3.1.4 Cultural dif

2、ferences in discourse 3.2 Non-verbal process 3.3 Cultural influences on contexts,3.1 verbal process,3.1.1 Cultural differences in word meanings Seven types of meaning proposed by Leech four categories concerning cultural differences in word meanings: (1) similar conceptual meaning, but distinctive e

3、ven opposite associative meaning (2) similar conceptual meaning, but partially similar associative meaning (3) similar conceptual meaning, but rich associative meaning in one culture and no associative meaning in the other culture (4) unique vocabulary in a certain culture,Seven types of meaning,1)

4、Conceptual meaning 概念意義 2) Connotative meaning 內(nèi)涵意義 3) Social meaning 社會意義 4) Affective meaning 情感意義 5) Reflected meaning 反映意義 6) Collocative meaning 搭配意義 ( from the second to the sixth types are known as associative meaning 聯(lián)想意義) 7) Thematic meaning 主題（主位）意義,(1) similar conceptual meaning, but dist

5、inctive even opposite associative meaning,龍 - dragon 中國龍 Chinese dragon. 亞洲四小龍 four tigers 望子成龍 want ones son to be somebody, 風(fēng)月 (wind and mood) love affairs 江湖 (rivers and lakes) all corners of the country 流落江湖 live a vagrant life 走江湖 tramp from place to place to make a living 江湖騙子 swindler 江湖醫(yī)生 qu

6、ack, 菊 chrysanthemum (a symbol of longevity in Chinese, but in English it symbolizes funeral) 白日作夢 day dream (pleasant thoughts, hope, wish, idea) 紳士，君子 (moral man; perfect man ) gentleman 妥協(xié) compromise,(2) similar conceptual meaning, but partially similar associative meaning,a) materialism 唯物主義（追求物

7、質(zhì)享受, 物質(zhì)主義）； b) idealism 唯心主義（理想主義）； 在英語中，idealism 作為“理想主義”解時，他的對立面就是materialism， 前者具有不圖私利，為理想而奮斗的意思，而后者卻具有貪圖物質(zhì)享受、貪圖私利的意思。 c) liberalism 自由主義（反對政治宗教的束縛）；,d) individualism 個人主義（個性） e) pragmatism 實(shí)用主義 （務(wù)實(shí)； 講實(shí)際，實(shí)用） f) philosophy 哲學(xué) the philosophy of law/ science 法學(xué)/科學(xué)原理; moral philosophy 倫理學(xué) g) politics

8、 政治，有時，含有為爭權(quán)奪利而不惜采取欺騙或其他手段的意思。 h) color words,GREEN,green with envy green-eyed green hand 綠帽子green hat?,RED,red-letter day (vs. black-letter day) to paint the town red roll out the red carpet for someone 紅雙喜 double happiness written in red 開門紅 begin well, make a good start,RED,to see red become angr

9、y red flag 紅旗？危險信號 (a symbol of danger) waving a red flag cause quick anger in other people red tape excessive use of formalities in public business 官僚氣習(xí) 你紅光滿面。 Your face is very red. (wrong) You look so healthy and full of pep. You look the very picture of health and energy,RED,紅衛(wèi)兵 red guard 又紅又專 r

10、ed and expert ? both socialist-minded and professionally qualified 一顆紅心 a red hear? loyal to the party, having socialist virtues,(3) similar conceptual meaning, but rich associative meaning in one culture and no associative meaning in the other culture, 竹子 - bamboo 竹林七賢、胸有成竹、勢如破竹、雨后春筍 daffodil - 黃水仙

11、 In English, to express the coming of the spring and the happiness narcissus - 水仙花,(4) unique vocabulary in a certain culture,街道婦女 street women women working in the neighborhood community 個體戶 individual household self-employed businessman 全民所有 owned by the whole people state-owned 愚公移山 the Foolish O

12、ld Man who moved mountains Yu Gong,(4) unique vocabulary in a certain culture,Brand Names and Trade Marks: 帆船（鬧鐘） Junk (破爛？) 白象電池 White Elephant Battery 笨，不干活？ 鵝牌（羽絨服） Goose 笨重？ 方圓牌 Square-Circle (又圓有方，不三不四？),(4) unique vocabulary in a certain culture,雙龍 Double Dragon (恐怖？) 菊花牌電扇 Chrysanthemum (fune

13、ral?) 金雞鞋油 Golden Cock Shoe Polish (cock?) 海燕 Petrel (disaster?),3.1.2 Cultural differences in syntactical patterns,3.1.2.1 inflectional vs. noninflectional language English: structure first Chinese: semantic first “中國隊大勝美國隊”和“中國隊大敗美國隊”。 “曬太陽”、“恢復(fù)疲勞”、“吃小灶”,3.1.2.2 parataxis vs. hypotaxis 中文：意合(parat

14、axis)，即靠詞語和句子內(nèi)在意義的邏輯聯(lián)系隱性銜接 英文：形合(hypotaxis)，使用詞匯語法等具體的語言形式把詞語句子結(jié)合成語篇顯性銜接 孟子曰：“饑者甘食，渴者甘飲，是未得飲食之正也，饑渴害之也?！保献颖M心篇 The hungry think any food sweet, and the thirsty think the same of any drink, and thus they do not get the right taste of what they eat and drink. The hunger and thirst, in fact, injure the

15、ir palate.,枯藤，老樹，昏鴉。/ 小橋，流水，人家。/ 古道，西風(fēng)，瘦馬。/ 夕陽西下，/ 斷腸人在天涯。 Crows hovering over rugged old trees wreathed / with, rotten vine - the day is about done. / Yonder is a tiny bridge over a sparkling stream, / and on the far bank, a pretty little village. / But the traveler has to go on down this ancient r

16、oad, the west wind / moaning, his bony horse groaning, trudging towards the sinking sun, / farther and farther away from home.,3.1.2.3 Subject consciousness vs. object consciousness: evidence in the subject of sentence and cohesive devices During this period an intense competition developed between

17、research workers in Australia and in America, and basic discoveries followed one another in rapid succession. 譯文：這期間澳大利亞和美國的研究工作者開展了緊張的競賽，因而，基礎(chǔ)性的發(fā)現(xiàn)接二連三涌現(xiàn)出來。,原因分析,中文：主體意識（中國人講“天人合一、人法自然、萬物皆備于我”，所以凡事凡物都有很強(qiáng)的主體參與意識，語言表現(xiàn)多以“人”做主語。） 英文：客體意識（由理性的分析而執(zhí)著于主客分離和區(qū)別，所以一方面或以“人”這個主體為主語，或以事物這個客體為主語，視需要而定；另一方面更多地抱客觀審視

18、的態(tài)度，以事物為主語，對之進(jìn)行客觀、冷靜的剖析和描述）,3.1.3 Cultural differences in pragmatics,John Austin constructed a new model of three kinds of acts (cited from Dai Weidong 1989: 107) 1) Locutionary act 發(fā)話行為；言中行為 the act of saying something; it is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phono

19、logy. 2) Illocutionary act 話中行為；言外行為 the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speakers intension. 3) Perlocutionary act 話后行為；言后行為 act performed by or resulting from saying something.,Examples,Chinese: 你上哪里去？ English: Where are you going? Chinese: 你吃了嗎？ English: Have you

20、 eaten? English: Your wife looks so beautiful! (at a party) Chinese: 你老婆太迷人了！,Pragmatic failure,Pragmatic failure is the inability to understand what is meant by what is said. In intercultural communication people from different cultures speak the same language, but their communication may break dow

21、n due to cultural differences in ways of thinking, rules of speaking, social values, lexical connotations, and other factors. So pragmatic failure does not refer to the errors of language use in making sentences, but refers to the errors of inappropriateness when speaking; or the errors of not getti

22、ng the expected communicative effects caused by the inappropriateness of speaking manner, the expression inconsistent with custom.,(1) pragmalinguistic failure,pragmalinguistic failure, “which occurs when the pragmatic force mapped by S (speaker) onto a given utterance is systematically different fr

23、om the force most frequently assigned to it by native speakers of the target language, or when speech act strategies are inappropriately transferred from L1 to L2”. Thomas (1983: 99),Lexical level, syntactical level, textual level,Case studies,Huang Guangqin studies in America. One day she had a cha

24、t with her hostess Susan about family relationships and child-raising. She said, “In China, the parent is more likely to make the decision for the child, and the children are not supposed to make their own decisions when theyre young.” Susan said, “Really? But in America, every person is encouraged

25、to act independently and be responsible for his actions, so children are encouraged at an early age to start making,Case studies,decisions. This allows them to learn to express their individual desires and make choices.” Guangqin said, “But whatever the parents do, they do it for the sake of their c

26、hildren since all the parents in China hope their children will be dragons.” After hearing that, Susan felt very surprised, “Dragons? Why do your Chinese parents hope their children will be monsters?”,Case studies,Mr. Golles works in an international company in China. Once he commented on his secret

27、ary Dobbie with his colleague, Wang Fei. “I think Dobbie devoted herself to the post. She is a really white person.” “A white person?” Wang Fei was surprised, “No, she is from Africa.”,Case studies,A Chinese paid a visit to an American friend. After he learned that the beautiful curtains were made b

28、y the friends wife, he said to the friend, “Well, I didnt expect she could make such beautiful curtains.” The hostess was upset by his remark and this spoilt the visit.,(2) sociopragmatic failure,sociopragmatic failure, which refers to “the social conditions placed on language in use” and “stems fro

29、m cross-culturally different perceptions of what constitutes appropriate linguistic behaviour”. Thomas (1983: 99),Case studies,One American friend invited a visiting scholar to watch a movie. The following was the conversation between them. American: What kind of movie do you like? Chinese: I dont c

30、are. Its up to you. American: Since I live here, I can go any movie I like at any time. But if you have any movie particular in your mind, I will take you to that. Chinese: I dont mind. Any movie you like will be fine.,Reasons for pragmatic failure - on the one hand, from pragmatic transfer - on the

31、 other hand, from failure in understanding differences of sociolinguistic rules, rules of speaking or interaction rules, e.g. cooperative principles; politeness principle) in two cultures. One case study: the speech act of apology,3.1.4 Cultural differences in discourse,Chinese: inductive vs. Englis

32、h: deductive (Chinese: climaxing 高潮式vs. English: anticlimax 逆潮式) 徐念慈指出，東方人的語篇結(jié)構(gòu)是“起筆多平鋪，結(jié)筆多圓滿”；西方語篇結(jié)構(gòu)是“起筆多突兀，結(jié)筆多灑脫”。,東西方篇章結(jié)構(gòu)之差異（賈玉新，1997: 398）,Case studies: Why is English important to scientists? (A Chinese students composition),Today English is the most widely used language. When a scientist draws

33、a conclusion after a long period of study, he wants to let other people know his discovery. How should he do so? If he writes the paper in his native language, only some people will understand it. If he writes it in English, then more people will know it and other scientists may discuss it and form

34、different opinions. It is good for the development of science. Other,scientists can learn about their work. English, as a useful tool, is helpful for the scientists to communicate information. If every scientist knows English, he can see others opinions without difficulty. So English is important to

35、 scientists.,3.2 Non-verbal communication,3.2.1 body language / kinesics (身勢學(xué)) / gestures 體態(tài)語 3.2.2 paralanguage 副語言 3.2.3 object language 客體語 3.2.4 environmental language 環(huán)境語,3.2.1 Body language,(1) nodding / shaking ones head Ex. 1 Mama pursed her lips. “We do not,” she reminded us gently, “want t

36、o have to go to the bank,” We all shook our heads. 媽媽努了努嘴，溫和地提醒我們說：“咱們最好別動銀行的存款?！蔽覀兌键c(diǎn)了點(diǎn)頭。 Ex. 2 In Ceylon, a yes answer to a specific question is indicated by a nod of the head, whereas general agreement is indicated by a slow sideways swaying of the head.,3.2.1 Body language,(2) greetings Ex. 3 In

37、France, where a traditional U.S. handshake is considered too rough and rude, a quick handshake with only slight pressure is preferred. In Latin America, a hearty embrace is common among men and women alike, and men may follow it with a friendly slap on the back. In Ecuador, to greet a person without

38、 a handshake is a sign of special respect. In India, the handshake may be used by Westernized citizens, but the preferred greeting is the namaste - placing the palms together and nodding ones head. In Japan, the traditional form of greeting is a bow or several bows.,Lord Macartney Embassy to China (

39、1793),Obama bows while meeting Emperor Akihito of Japan,3.2.1 Body language,Ex. 4 Some Westerners think that Chinese people are cold because parents dont kiss their children, nor do husbands and wives seem to kiss each other when they meet after a long separation. (3) patterns of eye contact One stu

40、dy showed that Arabs, Latin Americans, and Southern Europeans focused their gaze on the eyes or face of their conversational partner, whereas Asians, Indians and Pakistanis, and Northern Europeans tend to show peripheral gaze or no gaze at all.,3.2.1 Body language,In the United States, the average l

41、ength of eye contact is 2.95 seconds, and the average length of time two people gaze at each other is 1.18 seconds. Any less than that and we may think the person is shy, uninterested, or preoccupied. Any more than that and we may think the person is communicating unusually high interest. Ex. 5 Some

42、 Western speakers think that Chinese students dont pay much attention to their talks, because they tend to avoid direct eye contact to the speaker and dont like to raise questions at the end of the talk.,3.2.1 Body language,(4) facial expression: smile Ex. 6 A Chinese man, Mr. Wang had just started

43、working in a new company in Australia. It was morning teatime and he was sitting in the tearoom smoking a cigarette. Suddenly one of his workmates came in and angrily pointed to a “No Smoking” sign. Mr. Wang was very embarrassed. He laughed and put his cigarette out. However, this did not seem to sa

44、tisfy the man, who started to talk rapidly and angrily. Hoping to calm him down, Mr. Wang smiled and apologized, trying to explain that he had not noticed the sign.,3.2.1 Body language,(5) other gestures Ex. 7 Showing thanks to the welcoming crowd: Chinese people hold up their arms, place the palms

45、and shake from forward to backward. But in English-speaking countries, the sign is assumed to show happiness by winners, especially sportsman. Ex. 8 Showing a sign of hitching. Ex. 9 Asking people to come up: Ex. 10 Circling ones index finger around the temples: being crazy for Americans but indicat

46、ing that one should think for Chinese people,3.2.2 Paralanguage,Paralanguage is communication that goes beyond the specific spoken words. It includes pitch, amplitude, rate, and voice quality of speech. Paralanguage reminds us that people convey their feelings not only in what they say, but also how

47、 they say it. 3.2.2.1 Silence 3.2.2.2 Turn-taking 3.2.2.3 Nonverbal sound,中國人喜歡保持沉默，也常常愛以沉默對待你，拒絕回答你的問題。 英語國家的人感覺受到了極大的侮辱。中國人要牢記在心的是，在英語國家的人當(dāng)中沉默是高貴的，但它是對兒童在成人面前的態(tài)度而言的。在成人之間，無論如何文不對題，只要聽清了問題就必須做出回答，因?yàn)槁牭教釂柡蟊３殖聊?，顯然是對對方的蔑視。寧可說一句“我不想告訴你”，也比沉默不語強(qiáng)。 中國餐桌上雖然很少沉默寡言，但飯菜上來以后交談很少。英語國家的人的習(xí)慣是吃喝并不重要，認(rèn)為請客吃飯只是提供了一個社交

48、談話的機(jī)會，因此當(dāng)他們看到中國人不愛交談時，感到有點(diǎn)迷惑不解。（轉(zhuǎn)引自畢繼萬, 1999: 47）,US Presidents Obamas “Burnt Toast”,Giving feedback: Oh, Sure; Uh huh; Oh, I see; Yeah Interrupting: Excuse me, but I didnt quite understand. / I am sorry, but I have a question. Notice a potential misunderstanding: mm mm uttered by Chinese in an effort to show the attention is misunderstood by Americans that “Okay! Okay! I understand! Hurry up and finish talking!”,Control of pitch: