1、ChaPtQr OnQ IntrOdUCtiOn一、定義1語(yǔ)言學(xué)LingUiStiCSUngUiStiCS is gen erally defi ned as the SCie ntific StUdy Of Ian guage 2普通語(yǔ)言學(xué) General LingUiStiCSThe StUdy Of Ianguage as a WhOle is Often CaIled General Iinguistics3語(yǔ) IangUage$Language is a SyStem Of arbitrary VOCal SymbOIS USed for human COmmUniCa廿on. 語(yǔ)言

2、是人類用來(lái)交際的任意性的有聲符號(hào)體系。4識(shí)別特征 DeSign FeatUreSIt refers to the defining POPertieS Of human Iangllage that distinguish it from any animal SyStem Of COmmU nicati on.語(yǔ)言識(shí)別特征是指人類語(yǔ)言區(qū)別與其他任何動(dòng)物的交際體系的限定性特征。ArbitrarineSS 任意性PrOdUCtiVity 多產(chǎn)性YDUality雙重性DiSPIaCement 移位性CUltUral transmission 文化傳遞 arbitrarinessThere is n

3、o IOgiCal COnnection between meanings and SOUnds.the arbitrary nature Of IangUage is a Sign Of SOPhiStiCatiOn and it makes it POSSibIe for Ianguage to have an Unlimited SOUrCe Of expressions ProductivityAnimaIS are quite Iimited in the messages they are able to Send DUalityLanguage is a system, WhiC

4、h COnSiStS Of two SetS Of StrUCtUreS ZOr two IeVeIS(Ji)DiSPlOCementLangUage Can be USed to refer to COntexts removed from the immediate SitUatiOnS Of the speaker. ()CUItUral transmissionHUman CaPaCity for IangUage has a genetic basis, but We have to be taught and Ieamed the details Of any Ianguage S

5、yStem this ShOWed that IangUage is CUItUralIy tranSmitted not by instinct, animals are born With the CaPaCity to PrOdUCe the Set Of CaIIS PeCUliar to their SPeCieS 5語(yǔ)言能力 COmPetenCeCOmPetenCe is the ideal user's knoWIedge Of the rules Of HiS Ianguage6語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用 PerfOrmanCePerfOrmance is the actual real

6、ization OfthiS knoWIedge in IingUiStiC COmmUnication.語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用是所掌握的規(guī)則在語(yǔ)言交際中的體現(xiàn)。7歷時(shí)語(yǔ)言學(xué) DiaChrOniC IingUiStiCSThe StUdy Of IangUage Change through time a diachrOniC StUdy Of IangUage is a historical StUdyz WhiCh StUdieS the historical development Of IangUage OVer a PeriOd Oftime 8共時(shí)語(yǔ)言學(xué) SynChrOniCal IingUiS

7、tiCSThe StUdy Of a given Ianguage at a given time9語(yǔ)言 IangUe<The abstract Iinguistic SyStem Shared by all members Of a SPeeCh COmmunity.10言語(yǔ) ParOIeThe realizatiOn Of IangUe in actual USe規(guī)定性 PreSCriPtiVeIt aims to Iay down rules for "correct" behavio to tell PeOPIe What they ShOUId Say an

8、d What ShOUld not say.12.描述性 DeSCriPtiVeA IingUiStiC StUdy describes and analyzes the Ianguage PeOPIe actually USe二、知識(shí)點(diǎn)Iis not an isolated Phenomenor it's a SOCial activity Carried OUt in a Certain SOCial GrWirOnment by human beings語(yǔ)言不是一種孤立的現(xiàn)象，而是人類在一泄的社會(huì)環(huán)境下進(jìn)行的一種社會(huì)活動(dòng)。2. 幾種觀點(diǎn)和現(xiàn)象的提出者：瑞士語(yǔ)言學(xué)家SaUSSUre

9、 SaUSSUre:LangUe和ParOle的區(qū)別IingUiSt美國(guó)語(yǔ)言學(xué)家inl950 針對(duì) Saussure' S IangUe&parole 提出 COmPetenCe 和 PerfOrmanCe曾經(jīng)對(duì)語(yǔ)言概念下過(guò)定義的語(yǔ)言學(xué)家SaPlr一IangUage is a PUreIy human and noninstinCtiVe method Of COmmUniCatiOn ideas, emotiOnS and desires by means Of VOIUntarily PrOdUCed symbols.SHaII-一IangUage is the insti

10、tution Whereby humans COmmUnicate and interact With each Other by means Of HabitUaIIy USed oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.ChOmSky一from now On I Will COnSider IangUage to be a Set Of SGntGnCeSz each finite in Iength and COnStrUCted OUt Of a finite Set Of elements.(4) LingUiSt CharleS HOCkett 美國(guó)語(yǔ)言學(xué)家

11、CharIeS HOCkett提出了語(yǔ)言的識(shí)別特征design featuresWOrd 'language, PreCeded by the zero-article Jt implies that IingUiStiCS StUclieS not any PartiCUIar IangUage LangUage 一詞前不加冠詞說(shuō)明語(yǔ)言學(xué)家不只研究一種特定的語(yǔ)言。Order to discover the nature Of the Underlying Ianguage SyStem ZWhat the Iinguists has to do first if to StUdy I

12、anguage factsis a COmPliCated Gntity With multiple IayerS and facts, SO it,s hardly POSSibIe for the IingUiStiCS to deal With it all at once. 判斷題drew the attention Of the IingUiStS Were the SOUndS USed in languages.最先引起語(yǔ)言學(xué)家注意 的是語(yǔ)言的發(fā)音。三、問(wèn)答題are major branches Of IingUiStiCS What does each StUdyPhOneti

13、CS-一it's defined as the StUdy Of the PhOniC medium Of Ianguage, it's COnCerned With all the SOUnds that OCCUr in the world's IanguagesPhOnoIOgy一the StUdy Of SOUnds SyStemsthe inVentOry Of distinctive SOUndS that OCCUr in a Ianguage and the Patterns into WhiCh they fallMOrPhOlOgy一It's

14、 a branch Of a grammar WhiCh StUdieS the internal StrUCtUre Of WOrdS and the rules by WhiCh WOrdS are formedSYntaxit's a SUbfield Of IingUiStiCS that StUdieS the SentenCe StrUCtUre Of a IangUage.SemanUcsIt's SImPIy defined as the StUdy Of meaning in abstraction.$PragmatiCS一the StUdy Of meani

15、ng in COntext Of words.SOCiOlinguisticsthe StUdy Of IangUage With reference to society.PSyChOlingUiStiCS一the StUdy Of IangUage With referenee to the WOrking Of the mind.APPlied Iinguisticsthe applicatiOn Of IingUiStiC PrinCiPleS and theories to IangUage teaching and Iearni ngdo We Say IangUage is ar

16、bitraryLanguage is arbitrary in the SenSG that there is no intrinsic COnnection between the SOUndS that PeOPle USe and the ObjeCtS to WhiCh these SOUndS refer.The fact that different Ianguages have different WOrdS for the Same ObjeCt is a good illustration Of the arbitrary nature Of Ianguagez it'

17、;s OnIy OUr tacit agreement Of Utterance and COnCePt at WOrk and not any inn ate relati On ShiP bou nd UP in the Uttera nce.A typical example to illustrate the 'arbitrariness' Of Ianguage is Za rose by any Other name WOUld Smell as sweet*.3 What makes modern Iinguistics different from tradit

18、ional grammarMOdern IingUiStiCS is descriptive, its investigations are based On authentic and mainly SPOken IangUage date.現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)是描述性的，其研究以確實(shí)可靠的、主要以口語(yǔ)形式的資料為基礎(chǔ)。 traditiOnal grammar is PreSCriPtiVe it is based OnZ high' Written IangUage 傳統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法是規(guī)定性的，研究'高級(jí)'書而語(yǔ)。modern Iinguistics mainly SynChrOni

19、C Or diachrOniC WhyMOdern IingUiStiCS is mainly SynChrOniG focusing On the PreSent-day IangUage UnIeSS the VariOUS StateS Of a Ianguage are SUCCeSSfUIly studied, it Will not be POSSibIe to describe IangUage from a diachronic POint Of VieW現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)主要是共時(shí)性的，重點(diǎn)研究現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言。除非對(duì)語(yǔ)言的各種狀態(tài)都進(jìn)行成功的研究, 否則很難從歷時(shí)性角度對(duì)語(yǔ)言進(jìn)行描述。en

20、joys PriOrity in modern Iinguistics, SPeeCh Or WritingsSPeeCh enjoys for the folIowing reasons:(1) SPeeCh PreCedeS Writing in terms Of evolution.(2) A Iarge amount Of COmmIIniCa廿On is CarrieCl OUt in SPeeCh than in Writing(3) SPeeCh is the (Orm in WhiCh infants acquire their native IangUageis SaUSSU

21、reZS distinction between IangUG and ParOIe SimiIar to Chomsky'sBOth SaUSSUre and ChOmSky make the distinction between the abstract IangUage SyStem and the actual USe Of Ianguage their PUrPOSe is to SingIe OUt the IangUage SyStem for SeriOUS StUdy TWO Iinguists idea differ in that SaUSSUre took a

22、 SOCiOlOgiCal VieW Of Ianguagez ChOmSky IOOkS at IangUage from a PSyChOIOgiCal POint Of VieWz COmPetence is a PrOPerty Of the mind Of each individual.distinction between Iangue and ParOIe（I）IangUe is abstract, relatively Stable （2）ParOIe is COnCrete, VarieS from PerSOn to PerSOrb from SitUatiOn to S

23、itUatiOn.V What is IingUiStiCS什么是語(yǔ)言學(xué)UngUiStiCS is generally defined as the SCientifiC StUdy Of Ianguage. It StUdieS not any PartiCUlar IangUageZ but Ianguages in general.劃 The SCOPe Of Iinguistics語(yǔ)言學(xué)的研究范疇The StUdy Of IangUage as a WhOIe is Often CaIIed general IingUiStiCS（普通 言學(xué)）The StUdy Of SOUndSz

24、WhiCh are USed in Iinguistic COmmUnication, is CaIIed PhOnetics.（語(yǔ)音學(xué)） The StUdy Of how SOUndS are PUt together and USed in COmmUnication is CaIIeCl phonology. （音 系學(xué)）The StUdy Of the Way in WhiCh morphemes are arranged to form WOrdS are CaIled morphology.（形態(tài)學(xué)）The StUdy Of how morphemes and WOrdS are

25、COmbined to form SGntenCeS is CaIIed SyntaX （句法 學(xué)）The StUdy Of meaning in Ianguage is CaIled Semantics （i 義學(xué)）The StUdy Of meaning in COntext Of USe is CalIed Pragmatics. （語(yǔ)用學(xué)）The StUdy Of Ianguage With reference to SOCiety is CaIled SOCioinguistics（社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)）The StUdy Of IangUage With reference to the W

26、Orking Of mind is Called PSyChoIingUiStiCS（心、理語(yǔ)言學(xué)）The StUdy Of applications （as the recovery Of SPeeCh ability） is generally known as applied IingUiStiCS（應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)） BUt in a narrow SenSez applied IingUiStiCS refers to the application Of IingUiStiC PrinCiPleS and theories to Ianguage teaching and Iearnin

27、g, especially the teaching Of foreign and SeCOnd IanguageOther related branches inClUde anthropological Iinguistics, （人類語(yǔ)言學(xué)） neurological linguistics,（神經(jīng)語(yǔ)言學(xué)） mathematical IingUiStiCSZ （數(shù)字語(yǔ)言學(xué)）and COmPUtatiOnal IingUiStics.（計(jì)算機(jī)語(yǔ)言學(xué)）3/ SOme important distinctions in Iinguistics語(yǔ)言學(xué)研究中的幾對(duì)基本概念PreSCriPand d

28、escriptive 規(guī)定與描寫If a Iinguistic StUdy describes and analyzes the IangUage PeOPIe actually use, it is Said to be descriptive, if it aims to Iay down rules to tell PeOPle What they ShOUld Say and What they ShOUld not say, it is Said to be PreSCriPtiVeMOdern IingUiStiCS differs from traditiOnaI grammar

29、. TraditiOnaI grammar is PreSCriPtiVe While modern IingUiStiCS is descriptive The task Of IingUiStS is SUPPOSed to describe the IangUage PeOPIe actually USez Whether it is "correct" Or not.SynChrOniC and CIiaChrOniC 共時(shí)和歷時(shí)The description Of a Ianguage at SOme POint in time is a SynChrOniC s

30、tudy; the description Of a Ianguage as it Changes through time is a CliaChrOniC study. In modern IingUiStiCSz SynChrOniC StUdy is more importantSPeeCh and Writing 口頭語(yǔ)與書而語(yǔ)SPeeCh and Writing are the two major media Of COmmUnication. MOdern IingUiStiCS regards the SPOken form Of Ianguage as Primaryz bu

31、t not the Written (Orm ReaSOnS are: 1 SPeeCh PreCedeS writing; 2 There are StiII many Ianguages that have OnIy the SPOken form; 3 In terms Of functior the SPOken IangUage is USeCl for a Wider range Of PUrPOSeS than the WrittGrL and CarrieS a Iarger IOad Of COmmUnica廿On than the Written.LangUe and Pa

32、rOIe 語(yǔ)言和言語(yǔ)The SWiSS Iinguist F. de SaUSSUre made the distinction between Iangue and ParOIe early 20th CGn tury.LangUe refers to the abstract IingUiStiC SyStem Shared by all the members Of a SPeeCh COmmUnit% and ParOIe refers to the realizatiOn Of Iangue in actual use. SaUSSUre made the distinction i

33、n Order to Single OUt OnG aspect Of Ianguage for SeriOUS study. He believes What Iinguists ShOUId do is to abstract Iangue from ParOlez to discover the regularities governing the actual USe Of Ianguage and make them the SUbjeCtS Of StUdy Of Iinguistics.COmPetenCe and PerfOrmanCe 語(yǔ)言能力和語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用PrOPOSed by

34、 American Iinguist N. ChOmSky in the Iate 1950zsHe ClefineS COmPetenee as the ideal user's knoWledge Of the rules Of HiS language, and PerfOrmanCe the actual realization Of this knoWIedge in Iinguistic COmmUniCation. He believes the task Of the IingUiStS is to discover and SPeCify the Ianguage r

35、ules.ChaPtQrTWO PhOnOlOgy一、定義(1 寬式音標(biāo) BrOad transcriptionThe transcription Of SPeeCh SOUndS With Ietter SymbOIS only.2窄式音標(biāo) NarTOWtranSCriPtiOnThe tranSCriPtiOn Of SPeeCh SOUnCl With IetterS SymbOIS and the diacritics.3淸音 VOiCeIeSSWhen the VOCal COrdS are drawn Wide apart Jetting air go through WithOU

36、t CaUSing VibratiOn ,the SOUnds PrOdUCed in SUCh a COndition are Called VOiCeleSS SOUndS4濁音 VOiCingSOUnds PrOdUCed While the VOCal COrdS are Vibrating are CalIed VOiCed SOUndS5元音 VOWelThe SOUndS in the PrOdUCtiOn Of WhiCh no articulators COme Very CIOSe together and the airStream PaSSeS through the

37、VOCal tract WithOUt ObStrUCtiOn are CaIled VOWeIS6輔音 COnSOnantSThe SOUndS in the PrOdUCtiOn Of WhiCh there is an ObStrUCtiOn Of the air Stream at SOme POint Of the VOCal tract are CalIed COnSOnants.7音位 PhOnemeThe basic Unit in phonology, it's a COIleCtiOn Of distinctive PhOnetic features.8音位變體Al

38、IOPhOneSDiffere nt PhOneS WhiCh Can represe nt a PhOneme in d iff ere nt GnVirOnmentS are CaIIed the allophOneS Of that PhOneme9音素 PhOneA PhOnetiC Unit Or Segment it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, it's a SPeeCh SOUnd We USe When SPeaking a IangUage10最小對(duì)立對(duì)Minimal PairWhen two different

39、forms are identical in every Way except for One SOUnd Segment WhiCh OCCUrS in the Same PlaCe in the StringSz the two WOrdS are Said to form a minimal pair.21超切分特征 SUPraSegmentalThe PhOnemiC features that OCCUr above the IeVel Of the Segment are CaIled SUPraSegmental features the main SUPraSegmental

40、features inCIUde StreSS ,intonation and tone22互補(bǔ)分布 COmPlementary distributionP35TWO allophOneS Of the Same PhOneme are Said to be in COmPlementary CIiStribUtion.13語(yǔ)言的語(yǔ)音媒介 PhOniC medium Of IangUageThe Iimited range Of SOUndS WhiCh are meaningful in human COmmUnicatiOn and are Of interest to Iinguisti

41、c StUdieS are the PhOnic medium Of IangUage在人類交際中有著一立意義、對(duì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)研究來(lái)說(shuō)舉足輕重。有限的聲音是語(yǔ)音媒介。14爆破音StOPSWhen a ObStrUCtiOn Created by the SPeeCh Organs is total Or COmPleteZ the SPeeCh SOUnd PrOdUCed With the ObStrUCtiOn released and the air PaSSing OUt again is Called a StOP Or a PlOSiVe they areb p t d k g二、知識(shí)點(diǎn)

42、resulting from CarefUl investigatiOnS ShOW that there have been over5,000languages in the WOrldZ about two thirds Of WhiCh have not had Written form.)2. Of the two media Of IanguageZSPeeCh is more basic than Writing.組成(I) ArtiCUIatOry PhOnetics 發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué) Iongest established, mostly developed(2) AUditOry

43、PhOnetiCS 聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)(3) ACOUStiCPhOnetiCS 聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)/Orga ns Of SPeeChPharyngeal CaVity - 咽腔Oral -口腔 greatest SOUrCe Of modificatiOn Of air Stream found hereNaSaI-鼻腔tongue is the most flexible, respOnSibIe for more VarietieS Of articulatiOn than any OtheG the extreme back Of the tongue Can be raised towards t

44、he UVUIa and a SPeeCh SOUnd Can be thus PrOdUCeCl as is USed in ArabiC and French.between the back Of the tongue and the VeIar area results in the PrOnUnCiatiOn ofk andgzthe narrowing Of SPaCe between the hard Palate and the front Of the tongue IeadS to the SOUndj;the ObStrUCtiOn Created between the

45、 tip Of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the SOU ndsta ndd.COnSonants: m / n / 9. A PhOne is a PhOnetiC Unit Or segment.rules例子If three COnSOnants ShOUld ClUSter together at the beginning Of a WOrdZ the COmbination ShOUId Obey the following three rules:<(Dthe first PhOneme must be s(2

46、) the SeCOnd PhOneme must be p Or t Or k(3) the third PhOneme must be /I/ Or r Or whas four basic types Of intonatiOn:FaIIing tone;RiSing tone;Fall-rise tone; RiSefall tone三、問(wèn)答題are the three branches Of PhOnetiCS how do they COntribUte to the StUdy Of SPeeCh SOUnd ArtiCUlatOry describes the Way OUr

47、SPeeCh OrganS WOrk to PrOdUCe the SPeeCh SOUndS and how they differ.AUditOrystudies the PhySiCal PrOPertieS Of SPeeCh SOUnds, reaches the important COnClUSiOn that PhOnetiC identity is Only a theoretical ideal.ACOUStiCstudies the PhySiCal PrOPertieS Of SPeeCh SOIIndS ,th Way SOUnd travel from the SP

48、eaker to the hearer.發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)描述了我們的發(fā)音器官如何發(fā)出語(yǔ)音，以及這些語(yǔ)音為何有所不同。 聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)研究語(yǔ)音的物理性質(zhì)，得岀了重要結(jié)論，即語(yǔ)音同一只是理論上的理想。 聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)研究語(yǔ)音的物理性質(zhì)，研究語(yǔ)音從說(shuō)話者到聽(tīng)話者之間的傳播方式。are the EngliSh COnSOnantS ClaSSifiedBy PIaCe Of articulation and By manner Of articulationdo PhOnetiCS and PhOnOIOgy differ in their focus Of StUdy WhO do you think WiIl

49、be more interested in the different between sayiandi,p andph,o PhOnetiCian Or a PhiIOlOgiSt Why 語(yǔ)音學(xué)和音位學(xué)的研究中心有何不同語(yǔ)音學(xué)家和音位學(xué)家嚥一個(gè)更關(guān)心淸晰音的區(qū)別為什 么<PhOnetics description Of all SPeeCh SOUndS and their find ClifferencesPhOnOIOgy descriptiOn Of SOlInd SyStemS Of PartiCUIar Ianguages and how SOIIndS function

50、to disti nguish meaning A PhOnG廿Cian WOUld be more interested in SUCh differences COS SUCh differences WiIl not COS d iff ere nces in meaning.,s a PhOne how is It different from a PhOneme how are allophones related to a PhOnemePhOnea SPeeCh SOUnd Za PhOnetiC UnitPhOneme一a COIIeCtiOn Of abstract SOUn

51、d features, a PhOnOIOgiCal Unit AlIOPhOnesactual realizatiOn Of a PhOneme in Clifferent PhOnetiC contexts.is a minimal Pair and a minimal Set Why is it important to identify the minimal Set in a Ianguage為什么區(qū)分最小對(duì)立組在一種語(yǔ)言中非常重要Minimal pairtwo SOUnd COmbinations identical in every Way except in One SOUnd

52、 element that OCCUrS in the Same POSitiOn 除了岀現(xiàn)在同一位宜的一個(gè)語(yǔ)音成分不同外,其他部分都一樣的兩個(gè)語(yǔ)音組合.Minimal seta group Of SOUnd COmbinations With the above feature一組具有上述特征的語(yǔ)音組合.By idenUfying the minimal Pair Or the minimal Set Of a language, a PhilOIOgiSt Can identify its PhOn ernes 通過(guò)分析一種語(yǔ)言的最小對(duì)立對(duì)或最小對(duì)立組,音位學(xué)家能辨別出它的音位.With

53、examples how broad transcription and narrow One tranSCriPtiOn differBrOad transcriptiOn-One Ietter SymbOl for OnG SOUndNarrOW tranSCriPtiOndiacritics are added to the One-Ietter SymbOIS to ShOW the finer differences between SOUndSthe SeqUential rule ,the assimilation rule and the deletion rule.有序規(guī)則

54、SeqUential rulesRUleS that govern the COmbinatiOn Of SOUndS in a PartiCUIar Ianguage同化規(guī)則 ASSimilatiOn rulesThe assimilation rule assimilates One SOUnd to another by' COPying ,a feature Of a SeqUential PhOneme, thus making the two PhOnGS similar.省略規(guī)則DeIetiOn ruleIfS a PhOnOIOgiCal rule WhiCh tell

55、s US When a SOUnd is to be deleted although its OrthOgraPhiCalIy represe nted.ChaPtQrThreQ IVlOrPhOlOgY一、定義1 詞素 MOrPhemeThe basic Unit in the StUdy Of morphology and the SmaIIeSt meaningful Unit Of Ianguage2自由詞素 Free MOrPheme$Free morphemes are in dependent UnitS Of meani ng and Can be USed freely a

56、ll by themselves 3黏著詞素 BOUnd morphemesBOUnd morphemes are these morphemes that CanOt be USed by themselves, must be COmbined With Other morphemes to form WOrdS that Can be USed independently.4詞根ROOtROOt is the base form Of a WOrd WhiCh CannOt be further an a lyzed WithOUt total IOSS Of identit y.5詞綴

57、AffiXThe COIIeCtiVe term for the type Of formative that Can be USed Only When added to another morpheme 6曲折詞綴 inflectional affixesThe manifestation Of grammatical relationships through the addition Of inflectional affixes, SUCh as number, tense, degree and CaSe7派生詞綴 DeriVatiOnal affixesThe manifesta

58、tion Of relatiOn between StemS and affixes through the addition Of derivational affixes 8詞干 SternA Stem is the existing form to WhiCh a derivational affix Can be added a Stem Can be a bound root ,a free morpheme, Or a derived (Orm itself.9形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則 MOrPhOlOgiCal rulesThey are rules that govern WhiCh affix Can be added