1、Figures of Speech (1) Figures of speech are forms of expression that depart from normal word or sentence order or from the common literal meanings of words, for the purpose of achieving a special effect. In everyday speech and writing and in literature the chief functions of figures of speech are pr

2、obably to embellish, to emphasize or to clarify. They are used to give tone or atmosphere to discourse, to provide vivid examples to stimulate thought by startling the reader or listener, to give life to inanimate objects, to amuse, or to ornament. Figures of speech exist in almost endless variety a

3、nd many are closely related or intricately overlap, hence no completely satisfactory system of classification has ever been devised. The following are some commonly used ones: Figures of Speech (2)simile metaphor personification metonymy SynecdocheAntonomasiaeuphemismHyperbolelitotes AntithesisParad

4、ox12. Oxymoron13. EpigramApostrophe rhetorical question 16. Irony17. Sarcasm18. Satire19. Ridicule20. Innuendo21. Parody 22. Climax23. Anti-climax24. Alliteration 25. Assonance26. Onomatopoeia 27. Transferred epithet28. Pun29. Parallelism 30. RepetitionFigures of Speech (3) 1. Simile (明喻) A figure t

5、hat involves an expressed comparison, almost always introduced by the word “l(fā)ike” or “as”. The two things compared must be dissimilar and the basis of resemblance is usually an abstract quality. 用like, as 或其他詞指出兩個(gè)截然不同的事物之間相似之處的辦法，叫明喻。( 本體: tenor; 喻體: vehicle) 1) As cold waters to a thirsty soul, so

6、is good news from a far country. 2) The water lay gray and wrinkled like an elephants skin. 3) He bellowed like a bull seeking combat. 4) That man cant be trusted. Hes as slippery as an eel. simileMore examples:A word and a stone let go cannot be recalled.Love and cough cannot be hid (hidden).He had

7、 no more idea of money than a cow.The pen is to a writer what the gun is to a fighter. (A is to B what C is to D.)What sculpture is to a block of marble, education is to the soul. ( What C is to D, A is to B.) Fig. 2Figures of Speech (4)2. Metaphor(暗喻) The substitution of one thing for another, or t

8、he identification of two things from different ranges of thought. It is often loosely defined as “an implied comparison,” “a simile without like or as”. Metaphor is considered by many the most important and basic poetic figure and also the commonest and the most beautiful. 1) Irrigation is the lifeb

9、lood of agriculture. 2) All his former joy was drowned in the embarrassment and confusion he was feeling at the moment. 3) Snow clothes the ground. Metaphor (2) A metaphor, to be effective, has to have three properties, viz., a) freshness and originality, b) aptness and c) consistency. A metaphor is

10、 apt and appropriate if the comparison implied heightens effect or enhances the subject. e.g. Her beautiful long hair was pitch-black. () Her beautiful long hair was jet-black. ( ) The night was pitch-black. ( ) Consistency in metaphors becomes relevant and important when we are using two or more me

11、taphors to illustrate the same subject. The metaphors are consistent if they produce images related to and supporting each other and are not mixed or discordant.Metaphor (3) e.g. The seeds of rebellion were kindled in secret. () (Here the metaphors are not consistent. One metaphor compares the initi

12、al stirrings of rebellion to seeds; the other likens the birth and growth of these feelings to the kindling of flames. Now seeds cannot be kindled. The metaphors are mixed.) The flames of rebellion were kindled in secret. () Mixed metaphors can produce very amusing and illogical imagery, and are to

13、be strictly avoided. More examples: I skim over the book to taste the tone of it. () (Tone cannot be tasted.) At last he felt a ray of hope. () (We normally see rays.)Metaphor (4) Below is an example of how three sets of metaphors are blended Skillfully together to illustrate the difficulty of editi

14、ng academic writing: And so, anticipating no literary treat, I plunged into the forest of words of my first manuscript. My weapons were a sturdy eraser and several batteries of sharpened pencils. My armor was a thesaurus. And if I should become lost, a near-by public library was a landmark, and the

15、Encyclopedia of Social Science on its reference shelves was an ever-ready guide. Instead of big trees, I found underbrush. Cutting through involved, lumbering sentences was bad enough, but the real chore was removal of the burdocks (牛蒡) of excess verbiage which clung to the manuscript. (S.T. William

16、son: “How to Write Like a Social Scientist”)(1st set: plunge-get lost-landmark- guide2nd set: forest- trees- underbrush- lumber-burdocks3rd set: weapons- batteries- armor- cutting through- removal )Fig. 2Figures of Speech (5)3. Personification (擬人) A figure of speech that gives human form or feeling

17、s to animals, or life and personal attributes to inanimate objects, or to ideas and abstractions. There are three chief kinds of personifications: 1) That produced by the use of adjectives. the blushing rose; the thirsty ground 2) That produced by the use of verbs. the kettle sings; the waves danced

18、 3) That produced by the use of nouns. the smiles of spring; the whisper of leavesPersonification (2)More examples: a) Youth is hot and bold, Age is weak and cold, Youth is wild, and Age is tame. William Shakespeare b) The match will soon be over and defeat is staring us in the face. c) This time fa

19、te was smiling to him. d) Dusk came stealthily. e) The storm was raging and an angry sea was continuously tossing their boat. f) The wind whistled through the trees.Fig. 2Figures of Speech (6)4. Metonymy (換喻，轉(zhuǎn)喻) The substitution of the name of one thing for that of another with which it is closely a

20、ssociated. For example: 1) The pen is mightier than the sword. 2) She sets a good table. (= She provides good food.) 3) He is too fond of the bottle. 4) Gray hairs should be respected. 5) I have never read Li Bai. Metonymy can be derived from various sources from names of persons, form animals, prof

21、essions, locations or place names, etc., as illustrated below:Metonymy (2) A. Names of persons a) John Bull: England, or the English people b) Uncle Sam: The United States of AmericaB. Animals the bear: the former Soviet Union or the Soviet government C. Parts of the body a) heart: feelings or emoti

22、ons b) head, brain: wisdom, intelligence, reason e.g. Her heart ruled her head. Use your brains. c) gray hair: old age Metonymy (3) D. Professions a) the bar: the legal profession b) the press: newspapers; newspaper reportersE. Locations of government, of business or industrial enterprises a) Downin

23、g Street: the British government or cabinet b) The White House: the President or Executive branch of the U.S. government c) the Pentagon: the U.S. military establishment d) Wall Street: U.S. financial circles e) Hollywood: American film-making industry f) Foggy Bottom: U.S. State DepartmentFig.2Figu

24、res of Speech (7) 5. Synecdoche (提喻) A. the naming of a part to mean the whole. For xample, 1. We are short of hands. (“Hands” for men who do manual labor.) 2. a fleet of 50 sails (for “a fleet of 50 ships”) B. the naming of the material for the thing made. e.g. Have you any coppers? (= any money?)

25、C. the naming of the genus for the species. e.g. He is a poor creature. (= a poor man.) D. the naming of an individual for a class. e.g. He is the Newton of this century. Fig. 2Figures of Speech (8)Antonomasia (換稱): The term for some common figurative uses of namesthe use of an epithet or title in p

26、lace of a name his majesty for a king or the name of the king; his honor for a judge or the name of the judge; the Boss for the name of the employerThe use of a proper name instead of a common noun a Judas for a traitor He is our Gorky. Gorky for a famous writerCf. synecdoche. There is a certain deg

27、ree of overlapping here. Fig. 2Figures of Speech (9)7. Euphemism (委婉語) The substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant. e.g. “true words” the “gilded words” A. Death, Illness, Old Age, etc. to die to pass away; ones heart has stopped

28、 beating old people senior citizens old age getting on; past ones prime; feeling ones age; second childhood mad emotionally disturbed; soft in the head; simple-minded fat people weight- watchers (The motive for the euphemisms in this case seems to be to avoid hurting peoples feelings.) Euphemism (2)

29、 B. Toilet Habits, etc. go to the toilet visit the necessary; answer natures call; do ones business; go to the bathroom (The motive here, obviously, is to avoid using the true words which are considered crude and indecent in polite conversation.) C. Poverty and Unemployment dismiss lay off penniless

30、 hard up; in reduced circumstances in debt in difficulties the poor *the have-nots; the underpriviledged/ disadvantaged slums *sub-standard housing (the euphemisms used by the poor themselves are to “soften” harsh reality, but the terms marked * often used by Euphemism (3) government personnel seem

31、more to cover up governmental inability to solve social and economic problems “cosmetic” words, so to say.)D. Menial jobs or professions of low social standing hairdresser beautician; hair-stylist; hair-designer undertaker mortician manicurist a nail technician mechanic automobile engineer bootblack

32、 footwear maintenance engineer garbage man sanitation engineer (The motive here is plainly to “uplift” these professions by name, if not by status. It reflects a sense of inferiority as well as a striving for “better things”.)Euphemism (4) E. Political and Military activities invasion military actio

33、n aggression police action refugee displaced person D.P. retreat adjustment of the front; redeployment concentration camps strategic hamlets driving inhabitants away pacification shelling or bombing of ones own troops ( or allied troops) accidental delivery or death or casualties caused by “friendly

34、 fire” (The euphemisms here are used to cover up the true nature of events, deceiving the public with nice-sounding and pseudo-technical words.)Fig. 2Figures of Speech (10)8. Hyperbole(夸張) A conscious exaggeration for the sake of emphasis, not intended to be understood literally. 1) The wave ran mou

35、ntain high. 2) His speech brought the house down. 3) All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. Fig. 2Figures of Speech (11)9. Litotes ( 曲言；含蓄渲染) A form of understatement (輕描淡寫，降調(diào)陳述) which gains its particular effect by phrasing in the negative what it wishes to say positively. 1)

36、 This is no small accomplishment. 2) The German fleet was not an unworthy opponent. 3) This is not at all unpleasant.Fig. 2Figures of Speech (12)10. Antithesis (對照、對仗) The setting of contrasting phrases opposite each other for emphasis. In true antithesis the opposition between the elements is manif

37、ested through parallel grammatical structure. 1) The quest for righteousness is Oriental, the quest for knowledge, Occidental. (Sir William Osler) 2) Good breeding consists in concealing how much we think of ourselves and how little we think of the other person. (Mark Twain) 3) A friend exaggerates

38、a mans virtues, an enemy his crimes. 4) If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.Antithesis (2) 5) Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us. 6) And so, my fellow Americans ask not what your coun

39、try can do for you; ask what you can do for your country. 7) United, there is little we cannot do in a host of co-operative ventures. Divided, there is little we can do, for we dare not meet a powerful challenge at odds and split asunder. 8) a world which will lament them a day and forget them forev

40、er 9) From them all Mark Twain gained a keen perception of the human race, of the difference between what people claim to be and what they really are.Fig. 2Figures of Speech (13)11. Paradox (反論；似非而是的雋語) a statement that appears to be logically contradictory and yet may be true, the purpose of which

41、is to provoke fresh thought. 1) One mans terrorist is another mans freedom fighter. 2) My life closed twice before its close. (Emily Dickinson) (meaning two truly eventful things occurred in her life before that life ceased) 3) In fact, it appears that the teachers of English teach English so poorly

42、 largely because they teach grammar so well. 4) The child is father of the man. (Wordsworth)Fig. 2Figures of Speech (14)12. Oxymoron (矛盾修飾法) A compressed paradox, formed by the conjoining of two contrasting, contradictory or incongruous terms. 1) bitter-sweet memories 2) orderly chaos 3) the wisest

43、fool in Christendom 4) living deaths 5) freezing fires 6) glorious defeat 7) poor rich guys 8) tearful joyOxymoron(2) An understanding of oxymoron can help us to appreciate more fully the implied complexity of descriptions and feelings. Like paradox, an Oxymoron initially surprises one with its inco

44、ngruity of terms, which really hides a certain truth, or a significent point. As in paradox, the appreciation of an oxymoron comes from trying to find the hidden truth, the subtle significance in otherwise conflicting images or ideas.Fig. 2Figures of Speech (15)13. Epigram(警句) A short, pithy stateme

45、nt in verse or prose, usually with a touch of wit, often antithetical. 1) Necessity is the mother of invention. 2) Experience is the name everyone gives to his mistakes. 3) Conscience is the inner voice that warns us that someone may be looking. (H. L. Mencken)4) The child is father of the man. (Wor

46、dsworth) (the intended meaning is that the actions of a boy indicate what kind of a man he is likely to become)Note: There may be some overlapping of an epigram and a paradox.Fig. 2Figures of Speech (16)14. Apostrophe (頓呼) The turning away from the subject and the addressing of an absent person or a

47、 personified object or abstraction. The shift is both emotional and dignified, therefore most appropriate in serious and stately contexts.“You Heavens, give me that patience, patience I need!” (Shakespeare, King Lear)2) “Envy, be silent and attend!” (Pope)Fig. 2Figures of Speech (17)15. Rhetorical q

48、uestion (修辭疑問句；反問句) A question neither requiring nor intended to produce a reply but asked for emphasis. The assumption is that only one answer is possible. 1) Was I not at the scene of the crime? (Lesson 2, Book 1) 2) O Wind If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind? (Shelley: Ode to the West Wind)

49、 3) but can you doubt what our policy will be? (Lesson 5, Book 1) 4) But, without even considering that threat, shouldnt it startle us that we have put these clouds in the evening sky which glisten with a spectral light? (Lesson 3, Book 1)Fig. 2Figures of Speech (18)16. Irony (反語) A figure of speech

50、 that achieves emphasis by saying the opposite of what is meant, the intended meaning of the words being the opposite of their usual sense. For example: 1) Oh, how I love queuing up! (In fact, the speak hates it.) 2) This diligent student seldom reads more than an hour per month. 3) “Generally speak

51、ing,” said Miss Murdstone, “I dont like boys. How dye do, boy?” Under these encouraging circumstances, I replied that I was very well, and that I hoped she was the same, with such indifferent grace that Miss Murdstone disposed of me in two words, “Wants manner!” (C. Dickens: David Copperfield)Irony

52、(2) (Here the word encouraging is used ironically, for the circumstances were not encouraging at all they were, in fact, discouraging, for Miss Murdstone had said she didnt like boys.)4) We are lucky. Its the other side on the thirteenth of December. That makes us feel real good. (David Parks: G. I.

53、 Diary) (The writer means exactly the opposite of what he says. 13 is an unlucky number to most Westerners, and therefore they are definitely not lucky. And since on that date (December 13) they will land “on the other side” of the Pacific, in Vietnam, to fight in the Vietnam War, they dont feel goo

54、d at all. In fact, they are all quite frightened at the prospect.)Fig.2Figures of Speech (19)17. Sarcasm (尖刻諷刺) A cutting remark, a verbal sneer. Sarcasm pretends to disguise its meaning, but does not intend to be misunderstood.“Oh, youre really a great friend, arent you?” (addressed to one who wont

55、 lend the speaker 5 Yuan)He is very generous indeed. (referring to one who wont lend the speaker his dictionary) Wheres y go for it, man Jamaica? (Hopkins s cutting remark to McNair, the custodian, for not being quick enough with the rum. Jamaica is an island in the Caribbean, world famous for its r

56、um.)Fig. 2Figures of Speech (20)18. Satire It generally refers to a piece of literary work prose, poetry, or drama and generally not to a single sentence. It uses ridicule to expose and to judge behaviour or ideas that the satirist finds foolish, or wicked, or both; Swifts “A Modest Proposal” is a p

57、iece of satire. Fig. 2Figures of Speech (21)19. Ridicule (嘲笑) instance of being made fun of 1) Bryan mopped his bald dome in silence. Fig. 2Figures of Speech (22)20. Innuendo (暗諷) A mild form of irony, hinting in a rather roundabout way at something disparaging or uncomplimentary to the person or su

58、bject mentioned. (hinting or implying a thing without plainly saying it)I do not consult physicians; for I hope to die without them. (meaning they are more trouble than help)During the last five years my cook has several times been sober. (meaning that he is always drunk)Innuendo (2) 3) “The weather

59、man said it would be warm. He must take his readings in a bathroom.” (David Parks: G. I. Diary) (The author is hinting at the inaccuracy of the weathermans weather report. The weather is cold, rather than warm.)Fig. 2Figures of Speech (23)21. Parody (滑稽模仿) Using the words, thought, or style of an au

60、thor, but by a slight change adapting them to a new purpose or ridiculously inappropriate subject; the imitation or exaggeration of traits of style so as to make them appear ludicrousBritannia rues the waves (Lesson 13) (parodying a well- known line, “Britannia Rules the Waves”, of the famous Britis