1、Good is good, but better carries it.精益求精，善益求善。FAO可持續(xù)土地管理評(píng)價(jià)綱要-FESLM:AninternationalframeworkforevaluatingsustainablelandmanagementHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/T1079E00.htmlContents#ContentsTableofcontentsWorldSoilResourcesReportNo.73FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations1993ADiscussionPaperA.J.S

2、mythJ.DumanskiwithcontributionsbyG.SpendjianM.J.SwiftP.K.ThorntonJointlysponsoredby:FAOFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNationsIBSRAMInternationalBoardforSoilResearchandManagementISSSInternationalSocietyofSoilScienceTSBFTropicalSoilBiologyandFertilityIFDCInternationalFertilizerDevelopmentCen

3、treICRAFInternationalCentreforResearchinAgroforestryCTATechnicalCentreforAgriculturalandRuralCooperationACP-EECACIARAustralianCentreforInternationalAgriculturalResearchAgricultureCanadaUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculture-SoilConservationService(SMSS)LandandWaterDevelopmentDivisionFoodandAgricultureO

4、rganizationoftheUnitedNations1993ThedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialinthispublicationdonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartoftheFoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNationsconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,territory,cityorareaorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthed

5、elimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries.M-59ISBN92-5-103419-2Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopyingorotherwise,withoutthepriorpermissionofthecopyrightowner.Applicationsforsuchpermission,wit

6、hastatementofthepurposeandextentofthereproduction,shouldbeaddressedtotheDirector,PublicationsDivision,FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations,VialedelleTermediCaracalla,00100Rome,Italy.(c)FAO1993ContentsHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e01.htmlforewordForewordHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e02.ht

7、mlintroductionIntroductionHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e02.htmlissuesofsustainablelandmanagementIssuesofsustainablelandmanagementHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e02.htmlchallengesforthefutureChallengesforthefutureHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e02.htmlobjectivesofthereportObjectivesofthereportHYPERLINK/d

8、ocrep/T1079E/t1079e03.htmlaimAimHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e04.htmlchapter1:backgroundandprinciplesChapter1:BackgroundandprinciplesHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e04.htmlnatureofsustainablelandmanagement(slm)Natureofsustainablelandmanagement(SLM)HYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e04.htmlaspectsofsustaina

9、bilityAspectsofsustainabilityHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e04.htmlsustainabilityandsuitabilitySustainabilityandsuitabilityHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e04.htmlsustainabilityandstabilitySustainabilityandstabilityHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e04.htmlclassifyingsustainabilitystabilityandconfidenceClass

10、ifyingsustainability-StabilityandconfidenceHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e04.htmlsustainabilityandscaleSustainabilityandscaleHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e04.htmldetailedandgeneralizedformsofsustainabilityevaluationDetailedandgeneralizedformsofsustainabilityevaluationHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e04.

11、htmlprinciplesofsustainabilityevaluationPrinciplesofsustainabilityevaluationHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e05.htmlchapter2:feslmthegeneralapproachChapter2:FESLM-ThegeneralapproachHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e05.htmlthegeneralapproachtosustainabilityappraisalThegeneralapproachtosustainabilityappraisa

12、lHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e05.htmlusingevaluationfactorsUsingevaluationfactorsHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e05.htmlindicators,criteriaandthresholdsIndicators,criteriaandthresholdsHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e05.htmlachievingflexibilityofsubjectmatterAchievingflexibilityofsubjectmatterHYPERLINK/

13、docrep/T1079E/t1079e05.htmltheframeworkstructureTheframeworkstructureHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e05.htmlthestructureinoutlineThestructureinoutlineHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e05.htmlafamilyofframeworksAfamilyofframeworksHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e06.htmlchapter3:structureofthemasterframeworkCh

14、apter3:StructureofthemasterframeworkHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e07.htmlchapter4:constructinganactionframeworkChapter4:ConstructinganactionframeworkHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e07.htmlgettingstartedwithanactionframeworkGettingstartedwithanactionframeworkHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e07.htmlestabli

15、shingthepurposeEstablishingthepurposeHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e07.htmllevel1:theobjectivestatementLevel1:TheobjectivestatementHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e07.htmllevel1:aim,problemsandprocedureLevel1:Aim,problemsandprocedureHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e07.htmlexamplesofobjectivestatementsinloc

16、alframeworksExamplesofobjectivestatementsinlocalframeworksHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e07.htmllevel2:themeansstatement(presentuse)Level2:Themeansstatement(presentuse)HYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e07.htmllevel2:theaim,problemsandprocedureLevel2:Theaim,problemsandprocedureHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t107

17、9e07.htmllevel2:themeansstatement(additionaluses)Level2:Themeansstatement(additionaluses)HYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e07.htmlundertakingtheanalysisUndertakingtheanalysisHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e08.htmllevel3:evaluationfactorsLevel3:EvaluationfactorsHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e08.htmllevel3:t

18、heaim,problems,procedureLevel3:Theaim,problems,procedureHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e09.htmllevel4:diagnosticcriteria:(causeeffectandobservations)Level4:Diagnosticcriteria:(cause/effectandobservations)HYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e09.htmllevel4:theaim,problems,procedureLevel4:Theaim,problems,proced

19、ureHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e09.htmldiagnosticevidence:theapproachpathsDiagnosticevidence:TheapproachpathsHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e09.htmlevaluationfactors:complexandcomponentattributesEvaluationfactors:ComplexandcomponentattributesHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e09.htmlcriteria:understanding

20、causeandeffectCriteria:UnderstandingcauseandeffectHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e09.htmllevel5:indicatorsandthresholdsLevel5:IndicatorsandthresholdsHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e0a.htmllevel5:theaim,problems,andprocedureLevel5:Theaim,problems,andprocedureHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e0a.htmlfinalanal

21、ysisFinalanalysisHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e0b.htmlchapter5:offsiteevaluationChapter5:Off-siteevaluationHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e0b.htmlgeneralGeneralHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e0b.htmlactiveoffsiteeffectsActiveoff-siteeffectsHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e0b.htmlpassiveoffsiteeffectsPassiv

22、eoff-siteeffectsHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e0b.htmlallowingforoffsiteeffectsAllowingforoff-siteeffectsHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e0c.htmlchapter6:usingtheframeworkChapter6:UsingtheframeworkHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e0d.htmlchapter7:validating,reportingandmonitoringChapter7:Validating,reportin

23、gandmonitoringHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e0d.htmlvalidatingtheanalysisValidatingtheanalysisHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e0d.htmlreportingReportingHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e0d.htmlmonitoringMonitoringHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e0e.htmlreferencesReferencesHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e0f.htmlg

24、lossaryGlossaryHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e0g.htmlworldsoilresourcesreportsWorldsoilresourcesreportsForewordThisworkingdocumenthasbeenpreparedasafocusforfutureworkonthedevelopmentofanInternationalFrameworkfortheEvaluationofSustainableLandManagement(FESLM).TheFrameworkisdesignedasastructured,logica

25、lpathwayformakingdecisionsonwhetherornotacarefullydefinedformoflandmanagementislikelytoprovesustainableinadefinedsituationoveradefinedperiodoftime.Thelogicalpathwayapproachwasselectedbecauseourknowledgeofsustainabilitywillalwaysbeimperfect.Thisapproachassistsusinmakingdecisionsthatcanbesubstantiated

26、withouthavingtowaitforallthefinaldata.ThedevelopmentoftheFrameworkandthepreparationofthisdocumenthavebeenguidedbyaninternationalworkinggroupforthispurpose.Membershipinthisworkinggroupis:J.Dumanski(AgricultureCanada),Chairman;M.Latham(IBSRAM),Secretary;C.S.Ofori(FAO);R.Hanson(TROPSOILS),H.Eswaran(USD

27、A-SCS),P.K.Thornton(IFDC);andA.J.Smyth(Private).ThisworkinggrouphasbeenablyassistedfromtimetotimebyJ.K.Syers,E.Pushparajah,M.MausbachandR.L.Sawyer.Thisdocumentrepresentsthecollectivewisdomfromthisentiregroup.Thisdocumentmakesnoattempttoreviewtherapidlyexpandingrangeofliteratureonsustainabilitybutisb

28、asedonfourseminaldocumentsandondiscussionsinWorkingGroupsorganisedbytheInternationalBoardforSoilResearchandManagement(IBSRAM)atChiangRai,Thailandin1991;Nairobi,Kenyain1992;inWashingtonDC,USAin1992;andinLethbridge,Canadain1993.ThedocumentsthathaveshapedthecurrentformoftheFESLMare:PublicAdvisoryCommit

29、teestotheEnvironmentalCouncilofAlberta.AlbertaConservationStrategy:FrameworkforAction:ADraftforPublicDiscussion.Edmonton.1990.Dumanski,J.,Eswaran,H.andLatham,M.CriteriaforanInternationalFrameworkforEvaluatingSustainableLandManagement.InternationalWorkshoponEvaluationforSustainableDevelopmentintheDev

30、elopingWorld.ChiangRai,Thailand.IBSRAMProceedings12,Vol.2,Bangkok.1991.Dumanski,J.,Eswaran,H.,Pushparajah,E.andSmyth,A.(eds.).EvaluationforSustainableLandManagementsintheDevelopingWorld.Vol.1:TowardstheDevelopmentofanInternationalFramework.IBSRAMProceedings12,Vol.1.Bangkok,Thailand.1991.Dumanski,J.a

31、ndSmyth,A.TheIssuesandChallengesofSustainableLandManagement.InternationalWorkshoponSustainableLandManagementforthe21st.Century,UniversityofLethbridge,Alberta,Canada.1993.Thedocumentthatfollows,preparedandrevisedbyA.J.SmythandJ.DumanskiattherequestofFAO,withspecificcontributionsfromM.J.Swift(Biologic

32、alfactors),P.K.Thornton(Economicfactors)andG.Spendjian(Socialfactors),drawstogethertheideasexpressedinthesesourceswithsomeadditionalconnectingmaterialandveryvaluableconstructivecommentsreceivedorallyandinwritingatandbetweenthevariousmeetingsoftheWorkingGroup.Allthesecontributions,toonumeroustolist,a

33、remostgratefullyacknowledged.IntroductionHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e02.htmlissuesofsustainablelandmanagementIssuesofsustainablelandmanagementHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e02.htmlchallengesforthefutureChallengesforthefutureHYPERLINK/docrep/T1079E/t1079e02.htmlobjectivesofthereportObjectivesofthere

34、portIssuesofsustainablelandmanagementPerceivedwisdomintheapproachtoevaluation,useandmanagementoflandresourcesischangingrapidlyanddramatically.Pastemphasisonlanddevelopment,focusedonmaximizingproductionandreturnfromlanduseinvestmentandplannedagainstabackgroundbeliefthatsuitablelandsforexpansioncoulda

35、lwaysbefoundsomewhere,isforcedtogivewaytoamorecautiousapproach-onethatrecognizesthefiniteextentoffertilelandandtheseeminglyinsatiabledemandsofagrowinghumanpopulation.Globally,andinmanyindividualcountries,thereisclearevidenceofimpendinglandshortage.Areasinwhichthecombinationoflandandfreshwaterresourc

36、esismoderatelyorwellsuitedtoagricultureare,forthemostpart,alreadyinuse.Efficientuseoftheselandsisbecomingamatteroflifeordeathforincreasingmillionsofmankind.Futuregenerationsinstilllargernumbersaremoreseriouslyatrisk-theirlivelihoodendangeredbypresentproductionchoicesthatdegradetheveryresourcesonwhic

37、hfutureagriculturedepends.Globalproductionmustincreasedramaticallytomeetforeseendemandbutthelevelsandmeansofproductiontargetedlocallymustbethosethatcanbemaintainedonasustainedbasis.Global,andevenlocalagriculturemustbesustainable.Weneedavaluesystemwhichenshrinestheprincipleofsustainabilityovergenerat

38、ions.Sustainabledevelopmentmaymeandifferentthingstodifferentpeople,buttheideaitselfissimple.Wemustworkoutmodelsforarelativelysteadystatesociety,withpopulationinbroadbalancewithresourcesandtheenvironment.(Tickell,1993).Theconceptofsustainabilityincludesnotionsoflimitstoresourceavailability,environmen

39、talimpact,economicviability,biodiversityandsocialjustice(Dumanskietal.,1991;HarmsenandKelly,1992).Theconceptofsustainabilityisdynamicinthatwhatissustainableinonearea,maynotbeinanother,andwhatwassustainableatonetimemaynolongerbesustainable.Althoughsustainabilitycannotbemeasureddirectly,assessmentsofs

40、ustainabilitycanbemadeontheperformanceanddirectionoftheprocessesthatcontrolthefunctionsofagivensystemataspecificlocation(DumanskiandSmyth,1993).Theconceptofsustainabilityispertinentonlyagainstabackgroundoflimitstoresourceavailabilityanduse.Ifnosuchlimitsexist,ortheyarenotperceivedtoexist,thenitiscom

41、monthatresourcesareoverexploited;underrestraints,however,theconceptofsustainabilitybecomesincreasinglyimportant,risingasthescarcityoftheresourceincreases.Ourperceptionofscarcityandourknowledgeofalternateresourcepossibilitiesforthesameapplications,determinetheimportantfactorstobeconsideredinthesupply

42、-demandequationofsustainabilityandsustainablelandmanagement.Thefirstofthesefactorsisthefixedsupplyoflandsuitableforagricultureandfoodproduction.TheWorldstotalice-freelandareaisapproximately13.4thousandmillionhectares,butofthisonly24percentor3.2thousandmillionhectaresarepotentiallyarable,i.e.landthat

43、canbecultivatedand/ormaintainedinproductivepasture.Ofthis,about40percent(1.3thousandmillionhectares)ishighlytomoderatelyproductiveand60percentisoflowproductivity.Currentlythebestoftheselands,about1.5thousandmillionhectares,areusedforcropland,andtheremainderareinpermanentpasture,forestandwoodland(Bur

44、inghandDudal,1987).Thesecondfactoristheimpactofcompetitionbetweenincreasingnumbersofpeopleforthesamelandarea.Eachyearglobalpopulationsincreasebyabout90millionpeople.Sincethebestlandsarealmostallinuse,necessaryfurtherexpansionofagriculturewillcomeincreasinglyattheexpenseofpasturelandsandforests;lands

45、usuallyofmarginalqualitywheretherisksofcropproductionarehigherandthereturnslower.Overthelastthreehundredyears,human-inducedlandusechangehasresultedinanetgainofapproximately12mkmofcroplandbutnetlossesof6mkmofforestsand1.6mkmofwetlands.Evenoverthepasttwodecadestheglobalextentofcroplandhasincreasedby9.

46、1percent,whereaspastureandforestlandshavedecreasedconsiderably.Currently,therateoftropicaldeforestation,primarilyforagriculturalpurposes,isestimatedat17millionhectares(0.9percent)peryear,sharplyincreasedfromtherateof11.3millionhectares(0.6percent)peryearestimatedintheearly1980s(WRI,1992).Temperatean

47、dborealforestssufferedinthepast,buttheyarenolongersubjecttoacutedeforestation;infact,forestintheseareasmayhaveincreasedbyabout5percentsincetheearly1980s.Sincethemiddleofthiscenturyhuman-inducedlandusechangehasbecomesodrastic,sorapidandsoglobalthatitsimpactsareaffectingprocessesthatsustaintheinteract

48、ingsystemsofthegeosphere-biosphere(IGBP,1992).Thedirecteffectsofthesechangesonglobalsystemsremainspoorlyunderstoodbutthereisgeneralagreementonthepotentialimpacts.Forexample,expansionofagro-ecosystemsoverthelast150yearshasresultedinanetfluxofCO2equaltothatreleasedbyburningfossilfuelduringthesameperio

49、d;currentreleaseofCO2fromlandconversionsisbetween10and30percentofthatfromfossilfuelcombustion;landconversionisalsothelargesthuman-inducedsourceofN2O,whichcontributestogreenhousegasaccumulationandozonedepletion.Withorwithoutclimatechange,theconversionofnaturalhabitatsforagricultureandotherusesisrecog

50、nizedasamajorcauseoflossofgeneticstockandofgeneticdiversity.Atcurrentratesofconversion,itisestimatedthat25percentoftheWorldsplantspecieswilldisappearinthenext50years(IDRC,1992).Modernagriculture,withitstrendstowardsmonocultureisparticularlyvulnerable;alreadyonly20cropsprovide90percentoftheWorldsfood

51、;andwheat,rice,maizeandpotatocontributemorethanallothercropscombined(IDRC,1992).Onlyfourvarietiesproduce75percentofallwheatgrownontheCanadianprairieswhilst,inIndia,whereasmanyas30000varietiesofricewereplanted50yearsago,itisestimatedthatbytheturnofthecenturythreequartersofthericefieldswillbeplantedto

52、only10varieties.Thependingonsetofclimatechange,thenarrowinggeneticstockandthedisturbanceofglobalbiogeochemicalcyclesalladdconsiderableuncertaintytotheevaluationofsustainability.Thethirdmajorfactorinthesustainabilityequationisthedepletionofbiologicalproductionpotentialbytheinsidiousprocessesofsoiland

53、landdegradation,oftenacceleratedbyhumanactivities.Althoughtheextentofglobalsoildegradationisnotknownwithcertainty,currentbestestimatesarethatapproximately1.2thousandmillionhectaresofagricultural,forestryandrangelandshavebeenaffectedbymoderatetoextremesoildegradation(75percentofthisismoderatedegradat

54、ionand25percentisseveretoextreme).Afurther750millionhectareshavebeenaffectedbyslightdegradation.Thisdegradationiscausedbyhumanrelatedactivities,namely:overgrazing(35percentofdegradedland);improperagriculturalpractices(28percent);deforestationandoverexploitationforfuelwood(37percent);andindustrialpol

55、lution(about2percent).Asecondaryeffectoflanddegradation,oftenatleastasseriousinitslocalconsequenceasthelossofsoilmaterial,isthepollutionofsurfaceandgroundwater.Transposedanddissolvedmaterialsmaycausesalinization,alkalinization,andotherformsoftoxificationandeutrophication.Theimpactoftheseeffectsmaybe

56、feltfarfromthesiteofinitialdegradation.Withinthiscenturytheimpactoflanddegradationonproductionhasbeenmaskedbygreatlyincreasedfertilizeruseandotherinputs,butitisobviousthatproductivityincreaseswouldhavebeenmuchhigherintheabsenceofdegradation.ChallengesforthefutureTheevidenceismountingthatglobalagricu

57、ltureisatawatershed.Soon,forthefirsttimeinhistory,wewillhaverunoutofgoodlandforagriculturalexpansion.Forthefirsttimewearefacedwiththeimperativeofincreasingproductiononlandsalreadycultivatedinamannerwhichdoesnotdegradeproductiveresources.Themagnitudeofthetaskisillustratedbyacalculationthatshowsthatif

58、wearetomeettheneedsoftheanticipatedglobalpopulation,theamountoffoodwemustproduceinthenext50yearsequalsthetotalproductionofthepast8000yearsofagriculturalhistory(IDRC,1992).Iftheformsofagricultureusedtoachievethisincreasedproductionaretobesustainabletheymustbebasedonsoundagronomicprinciples,buttheymus

59、talsoembraceunderstandingoftheconstraintsandinteractionsofallotherdimensionsofsustainablelandmanagement.Yieldswillhavetoincreasebut,atthesametime,productionriskswillhavetobecontrolledtoensuremorereliablecashflowandpermitconfidentplanning.Soilresourceswillneedtobecontrolledandwaterpollutioncannotbeto

60、lerated.Productionsystemswillhavetobeflexible,diversifiedanddevelopedonabroadgeneticbasetoensurethepossibilityofrapidresponsetochangingconditions.Landmanagementpractices,inlargemeasure,controlprocessesoflanddegradationandtheirefficiencyinthisrespectwilllargelygovernthesustainabilityofagivenlanduse.H