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經(jīng)濟預(yù)測與出口管理第一頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日主要內(nèi)容預(yù)測的意義與預(yù)測技術(shù)的選擇時間序列分析平滑技術(shù)定性預(yù)測技術(shù)計量經(jīng)濟模型進出口銷售與匯率外匯風(fēng)險管理與匯率決定因素購買力平價國際貿(mào)易:管理視角第二頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日經(jīng)濟分析與決策
需求分析生產(chǎn)和成本分析產(chǎn)品、定價和產(chǎn)出量決策資本支出分析經(jīng)濟、政治與社會環(huán)境經(jīng)營狀況(趨勢、周期和季節(jié)性影響)要素市場狀況(資本、勞動和原材料)競爭者反應(yīng)與策略性反應(yīng)組織架構(gòu)與規(guī)則限制現(xiàn)金流量風(fēng)險廠商價值(股東的財富)第三頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日案例4-1—GlobalCrossing公司過剩的光纖傳輸能力美國光纖網(wǎng)絡(luò)傳輸高速數(shù)據(jù)和聲音信號的能力大大超出了電信需求,現(xiàn)有產(chǎn)能的97%閑置。紐約和洛杉磯之間輸送1兆B價格1995每年12000美元——2001下降到3000美元——2003年下降到1200美元。信號壓縮技術(shù)導(dǎo)致產(chǎn)能超過市場增長。100天翻一番。對電信傳輸量增長過度樂觀。2003年1000%——40%?;ヂ?lián)網(wǎng)的滲透呈現(xiàn)S形。第四頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日第五頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日一、預(yù)測的意義與預(yù)測技術(shù)選擇管理活動的核心問題——預(yù)測產(chǎn)品的未來需求、產(chǎn)品的生產(chǎn)成本、銷售產(chǎn)品的價格。宏觀預(yù)測與廠商預(yù)測。預(yù)測是困難的。兩種重要的經(jīng)濟預(yù)測:定量預(yù)測——8%,給定精確的數(shù)據(jù)或比率。定性預(yù)測——方向與趨勢。第六頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日一、預(yù)測的意義與預(yù)測技術(shù)選擇預(yù)測的最大意義在于對未來不確定性進行某種程度的確定,從而制定發(fā)展戰(zhàn)略。減少不確定而不能消除不確定。預(yù)測的層次:國民經(jīng)濟預(yù)測。GDP及其部分;利率;通貨膨脹率。產(chǎn)業(yè)預(yù)測。汽車制造業(yè)。企業(yè)預(yù)測。福特公司。產(chǎn)品預(yù)測。FOCUS。第七頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日一、預(yù)測的意義與預(yù)測技術(shù)選擇選擇預(yù)測方法的準(zhǔn)則:costsoftheforecastingmethodcomparedwithitsgainscomplexityoftherelationshipsamongvariablestimeperiodinvolvedaccuracyneededinforecastleadtimebetweenreceivinginformationandthedecisiontobemade。第八頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日一、預(yù)測的意義與預(yù)測技術(shù)選擇預(yù)測的精確性:分析被觀察值與預(yù)測值之間區(qū)別的大小。不同的指標(biāo)衡量模型的精確性。如可決系數(shù)R2。常用的平均預(yù)測誤差RMSE,越小準(zhǔn)確性越高。可選擇的預(yù)測技術(shù):確定性時間技術(shù)、平滑技術(shù)、氣壓技術(shù)、調(diào)查與民意測驗技術(shù)、計量經(jīng)濟模型、隨機性時間技術(shù)、投入產(chǎn)出表預(yù)測方法。第九頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日二、時間系列分析主要有三種類型的數(shù)據(jù):時間序列數(shù)據(jù)。橫截面數(shù)據(jù)。面板數(shù)據(jù)(PannelData)。時間系列數(shù)據(jù)分為四部分:長期趨勢+周期變動+季節(jié)效應(yīng)+隨機波動。第十頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日TIME
ToXXXDependentVariableSecularTrendCyclicalVariationForecastedAmountsThedatamayofferseculartrends,cyclicalvariations,seasonalvariations,andrandomfluctuations.第十一頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日二、時間系列分析基本的時間系列模型:最簡單的時間系列模型,下期與本期一樣。調(diào)整。長期趨勢。圖5-3。季節(jié)變動。第十二頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日NaiveForecastYt+1=YtMethodbestwhenthereisnotrend,onlyrandomerrorGraphsofsalesovertimewithandwithouttrendsWhentrendingdown,theNa?vepredictstoohighNOTrendTrend^timetime第十三頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日2.Na?veforecastwithadjustmentsforseculartrendsYt+1=Yt+(Yt-Yt-1)Thisequationbeginswithlastperiod’sforecast,Yt.Plusan‘a(chǎn)djustment’forthechangeintheamountbetweenperiodsYtandYt-1.Whentheforecastistrendingup,thisadjustmentworksbetterthanthepurena?veforecastmethod.
^第十四頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日UsedwhentrendhasaconstantAMOUNTofchange
Yt=a+b?T,where
Yt
aretheactualobservationsand
Tisanumericaltimevariable案例4-2——冰淇淋UsedwhentrendisaconstantPERCENTAGErate LogYt=a+b?T,
wherebisthecontinuouslycompoundedgrowthrate⑴LinearTrendGrowth⑵UsesaSemi-logRegression3.長期趨勢^^^第十五頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日Suppose:Yt=Y0(1+G)t
wheregistheannualgrowthrateTakethenaturallogofbothsides:LnYt=LnY0+t?Ln(1+G)butLn(1+G)g,theequivalentcontinuouslycompoundedgrowthrateSO:LnYt=LnY0+t?g
LnYt=a
+b
?t
wherebisthegrowthrate
^
^第十六頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日NumericalExamples:6observationsMTB>Printc1-c3.SalesTimeLn-sales100.014.60517109.824.69866121.634.80074133.744.89560146.254.98498164.365.10169Usingthissalesdata,estimatesalesinperiod7usingalinearandasemi-logfunctionalform第十七頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日TheregressionequationisSales=85.0+12.7TimePredictorCoefStdevt-ratiopConstant84.9872.41735.160.000Time12.65140.620720.380.000s=2.596R-sq=99.0%R-sq(adj)=98.8%TheregressionequationisLn-sales=4.50+0.0982TimePredictorCoefStdevt-ratiopConstant4.504160.00642701.350.000Time0.0981830.00164959.540.000s=0.006899R-sq=99.9%R-sq(adj)=99.9%第十八頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日ForecastedSales@Time=7LinearModelSales=85.0+12.7TimeSales=85.0+12.7(7)Sales=173.9Semi-LogModelLn-sales=4.50+0.0982TimeLn-sales=4.50+0.0982
(7)Ln-sales=5.1874Toanti-log:e5.1874=179.0linear第十九頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日SalesTimeLn-sales100.014.60517109.824.69866121.634.80074133.744.89560146.254.98498164.365.10169179.0 7semi-log173.9 7linearWhichpredictiondoyouprefer?Semi-logisexponential7第二十頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日⑶
DecliningRateofGrowthTrendAnumberofmarketingpenetrationmodelsuseaslightmodificationoftheconstantrateofgrowthmodelInthisform,theinverseoftimeisused
LnYt=b1
–
b2(1/t)Thisformisgoodforpatterns liketheonetotherightItgrows,butatcontinuouslyadecliningratetimeY第二十一頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日4.SeasonalAdjustments:
TheRatiotoTrendMethodTakeratiosoftheactualtotheforecastedvaluesforpastyears.Findtheaverageratio.Thisistheseasonaladjustment
AdjustbythispercentagebymultiplyyourforecastbytheseasonaladjustmentIfaverageratiois1.02,adjustforecastupward2%。調(diào)整因子12quartersofdataIIIIIIIVIIIIIIIVIIIIIIIVQuartersdesignatedwithromannumerals.第二十二頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日LetD=1,if4thquarterand0otherwiseRunanewregression:Yt=a+b?T+c?Dthe“c”coefficientgivestheamountoftheadjustmentforthefourthquarter.ItisanInterceptShifter.With4quarters,therecanbeasmanyasthreedummyvariables;with12months,therecanbeasmanyas11dummyvariablesEXAMPLE:Sales=300+10?T+18?D
12Observationsfromthefirstquarterof2002to2004-IV.
Forecastallof2005.
Sales(2005-I)=430;Sales(2005-II)=440;Sales(2005-III)=450;Sales(2005-IV)=478案例4-3——瑪特公司。5.
SeasonalAdjustments:
DummyVariables第二十三頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日三、平滑技術(shù)時間系列的一種形式。重復(fù)+隨機擾動。通過對過去觀察值取某種模式的平均數(shù),力求消除由序列數(shù)據(jù)中隨機擾動而產(chǎn)生的扭曲,使預(yù)測建立在對過去數(shù)次觀察值的一個平滑的平均數(shù)基礎(chǔ)上。移動平均法。季節(jié)變動。第二十四頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日
SoothingTechniques
6.MovingAveragesAsmoothingforecastmethodfordatathatjumpsaroundBestwhenthereisnotrend3-PeriodMovingAve.Yt+1=[Yt+Yt-1+Yt-2]/3N的選擇。案例4-4——沃克公司。*****ForecastLineTIMEDependentVariable第二十五頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日SmoothingTechniques
7.First-OrderExponentialSmoothingAhybridoftheNaiveandMovingAveragemethodsYt+1=w?Yt+(1-w)Yt
Aweightedaverageofpastactualandpastforecast.EachforecastisafunctionofallpastobservationsCanshowthatforecastisbasedongeometricallydecliningweights.
Yt+1=w.?Yt+(1-w)?w?Yt-1+ (1-w)2?w?Yt-1+…
FindlowestRMSEtopickthebestalpha.^^^
^第二十六頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日First-OrderExponential
SmoothingExampleforw=.50ActualSales Forecast
100
100 initialseedrequired
120 .5(100)+.5(100)=100 115
130
?
12345第二十七頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日First-OrderExponential
SmoothingExampleforw=.50ActualSales Forecast
100
100 initialseedrequired
120 .5(100)+.5(100)=100 115 .5(120)+.5(100)=110
130
?
12345第二十八頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日ActualSales Forecast
100
100 initialseedrequired
120 .5(100)+.5(100)=100 110 .5(120)+.5(100)=110
130 .5(115)+.5(110)=112.50
?
.5(130)+.5(112.50)=121.25Period5ForecastMSE={(120-100)2+(110-115)2+(130-112.5)2}/3=243.75RMSE=243.75=15.6112345第二十九頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日Directionofsalescanbeindicatedbyothervariables.TIMEIndexofCapitalGoodspeakPEAKMotorControlSales
4MonthsExample:IndexofCapitalGoodsisa“l(fā)eadingindicator”Therearealsolaggingindicatorsandcoincidentindicators
QualitativeForecasting
8.BarometricTechniques
四、定性預(yù)測技術(shù)第三十頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日QualitativeForecasting
9.SurveysandOpinionPollingTechniquesSamplebias--telephone,magazineBiasedquestions--advocacysurveysAmbiguousquestionsRespondentsmaylieonquestionnairesNewProductshavenohistoricaldata--Surveyscanassessinterestinnewideas.SurveyResearchCenterofU.ofMich.doesrepeatsurveysofhouseholdsonBigTicketitems(Autos)CommonSurveyProblems第三十一頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日SpecifythevariablesinthemodelEstimatetheparameterssingleequationorperhapsseveralstagemethodsQd=a+b?P+c?I+d?Ps+e?PcButforecastsrequireestimatesforfutureprices,futureincome,etc.Oftencombineeconometricmodelswithtimeseriesestimatesoftheindependentvariable.五、經(jīng)濟計量模型(11)第三十二頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日12.StochasticTimeSeriesAlittlemoreadvancedmethodsincorporateintotimeseriesthefactthateconomicdatatendstodriftyt=a+byt-1+etInthisseries,ifaiszeroandbis1,thisisessentiallythena?vemodel.Whenaiszero,thepatterniscalledarandomwalk.Whenaispositive,thedatadrift.TheDurbin-Watsonstatisticwillgenerallyshowthepresenceofautocorrelation,orAR(1),integratedoforderone.Onesolutiontovariablesthatdrift,istousefirstdifferences.第三十三頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日CointegratedTimeSeriesSomeeconometricworkincludesseveralstochasticvariable,eachwhichexhibitsrandomwalkwithdriftSupposepricedata(P)haspositivedriftSupposeGDPdata(Y)haspositivedriftSupposethesalesisafunctionofP&Y
Salest=a+bPt+cYtItislikelythatPandYarecointegratedinthattheyexhibitcomovementwithoneanother.Theyarenotindependent.Thesimplestsolutionistochangetheformintofirstdifferencesasin:DSalest=a+bDPt+cDYt第三十四頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日Moreandmorefirmarebecomingmultinationalenterprises.Exportsandimportsare influencedbychangesininternationalexchangerates.Differencesinlongruninflationrates(accordingtothetheoryofpurchasingpowerparity),nationaleconomicgrowthrates,andinterestrateshelpexplainlong-termexchangeratemovements.六、進出口銷售與匯率第三十五頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日CompetitivenessandExchangeRatesTheinternationalcompetitivenessofproductsisaffectedbyexchangerates.
IftheUSexportsaJeepGrandCherokeethatsellsfor$30,000,thepriceofthesamecarinEuropeisvastlydifferentIn2000,$/€=$.86/€.Ifthatcarcosts$30,000,theninEurosthatis$30,000/$.860/€or€34,884.When$/€=$.86/€,then€/$=1/$.86/€=€1.163/$In2004,$/€=$1.20/€.Ifthatsamecarcosts$30,000,theninEurosthatis$30,000/$1.20/€or€25,000.When$/€=$1.20/€,then€/$=1/$1.20/€=€.833/$Clearly,moreJeepsarelikelytobesoldinEuropeatthelowerthanthehigherprice.第三十六頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日ForeignExchangeRiskExposureTranslationRiskExposure
–occurswhenforeignassetsorliabilitiesareaffectedbyexchangerates.DisneyownsaparknearParis.WhentheEurorisesagainstthedollar,thevalueofthelandrisesintermsofdollars.Thisisprimarilyanaccountingadjustment.TransactionRiskExposure
–occurswhenapurchaseorsaleismadeinthefuture,whichinvolvesaforeigncurrency.WhenCumminsEnginesellsequipmenttoJapaninYen,buttheygive60daysbeforethepaymentisdue,thereisariskthattheYenwillfallinvalue.OperatingRiskExposure
–occurswhencashflowsofthefirmareimpactedbyexchangerates.WhenJeepsellsmoreGrandCherokeeswhenthevalueofthedollarislow,andlesswhenitishigh,thisisoperatingriskexposure.Thisisthemostimportantrisk.第三十七頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日J(rèn)eep,BMW,andCumminsEnginearebuyingandsellingforeignexchangeinthemarket.GovernmentsalsointervenebybuyingorsellingcurrenciesSpotPrice
forforeignexchangeiscurrentprice(2daydelivery)canappearindifferenttermsThe$/€isthedirectquoteintheUS,buttheindirectquoteinEuropeThe€/$istheindirectquoteintheUS,butthedirectquoteintheEuropeForwardPrice
isthepriceofaforeigncurrencyfordeliveryatafuturedateagreedbycontracttodayTheMarketforUSDollarsasForeignExchange第三十八頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日CanadianDollar
SpotandForwardRatesCountry US$equivalent PerUS$
Canada(C$)
.7331 1.36311-monthforward .7327 1.36482-monthsforward .7322 1.36573-monthsforward .7320 1.36616-monthsforward .7312 1.367612-monthsforward .7298 1.3702WhatdoesthemarketthinkwillhappentotheC$basedontheforwardrates?
June21,2004from第三十九頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日CrossRates
(June22,2004)USDEURJPYGBPCHFCADAUDHKDHKD7.79939.43870.071314.19046.23375.74495.3569
AUD1.45591.7620.01332.6491.16371.0724
0.1867CAD1.35761.6430.01242.47011.0851
0.93250.1741CHF1.25121.51410.01142.2764
0.92160.85940.1604GBP0.54960.66510.005
0.43930.40480.37750.0705JPY109.325132.305
198.91187.379680.52875.089914.0173EUR0.8263
0.00761.50340.66040.60870.56760.1059USD
1.21020.00911.81940.79930.73660.68680.1282Source:USD:U.S.Dollar GBP:BritishPound CAD:CanadianDollarEUR:Euro CHF:SwissFranc AUD:AustralianDollarHKD:HongKongDollar JPY:JapaneseYen第四十頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日
Supply&DemandModelofExchangeRatesForeignExchangeisusedfortradeandinvestment.Useasupply&demandmodeltoexploreFXratesDemandforSwissFrancs(SFr):
DemandisassociatedwithUSdemandfor
imports
fromSwitzerlandandpurchaseofSwissfinancialsecuritiesD$/SFr
SFr1,000SFr第四十一頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日
SupplyofSFrSupplyofSFr--SupplyisassociatedwithSWISSdemandforUS
exports
andUSfinancialinvestments.MarketClears-- noexcessdemandorexcesssupplyofSFInFlexibleMarkets,buying&sellingthroughinternationalbanksD$/SFrSFrS$.7993第四十二頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日SupposethatthereisariseintheInflationRate
intheUS
BothSupply&DemandofSFrShiftSWISSproductsappearcheaper,soDshiftstoD’USexportsappearmoreexpensive,soSshiftsfromStoS’TheSFrappreciates,andthedollardepreciatesD$1/SFrSFrSD'S'$2/SFr第四十三頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日SupposeUSinterestratesrise.DemandforSwissinvestmentsdeclines,fromDtoD’SupplyofSwissfrancsrisesasSwissseektoinvestintheUSfromStoS’SwissfrancsfallinvalueandthedollarrisesinvalueWhathappenswhenGreenspanCUTSinterestrates?D$1/SFrSD'$2/SFrS’第四十四頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日GovernmentalInterventioninForeignExchangeMarketsGovernmentscananddointerveneinmarketsDirectlybybuyingandsellingforeigncurrenciesAndindirectlybyalteringinterestratesorinflationratesSterilizedInterventionsinvolveoffsettinganindirectmove(likeanincreaseinshortterminterestrates)throughdirectactionintheforeigncurrencymarketsCoordinatedInterventionsinvolveseveralcountriesallagreeingtointervenetoraiseorlowertheexchangerateofsomecountry.第四十五頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日ForeignExchangeRiskManagement
Internalhedges–multinationalfirmsbuyandsellwithinthefirminanycurrencythattheyselect.BMWcouldusesaleofitscarsin$payablestobuyUScarpartsHedgesusingforwardcontracts–firmscanoffsetexposureinforeigncurrencybybuyingorsellingthatamountofcurrencyinaforwardcontract.ThisisatypicalwaytoreducetransactionriskexposureHedgesusingfutureoroptionscontracts–firmmayoffsetriskwithafuturescontractinthatcurrency.ForeigncurrencyfuturesandoptionsarelimitedtothemajorcurrenciesHedgesusingcurrencyswaps–firmsmayagreetoexchange(swap)streamsofpaymentsindifferentcurrencies,withadjustmentsateachsettlementdate.第四十六頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日DeterminantsofLong-RunTrends
inExchangeRates1.CountriesthathavehighgrowthratesinGDPtendtohaverisingcurrencyvalues.2. Countriestendtohaveadecliningvalueoftheircurrencywhentheyruntradedeficits,andtendtohaverisingcurrencyvaluesiftheyruntradesurpluses.3.Long-runtrendsinexchangeratesareaffectedbydifferencesininflation-adjustedinterestrates.Highrelativeinterestratesattractinvestors,tendingtoraisethevalueofthecurrency.4.Countrieswithhigh
inflation
tendtodepreciate;countrieswithlowrelativeinflationappreciate.
第四十七頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日PurchasingPowerParity(PPP)Purchasingpowerparitysaysthatthepriceoftradedgoodstendstobeequalaroundtheworld.Thisis:thelawofoneprice.ifexchangeratesareflexibleandtherearenosignificantcostsorbarrierstotrade,then:S1 =(1+h)S0 (1+f)
S1/S0showstheexpectedchangeinthedirectquoteofacurrency.Therightsideoftheequationistheratioofhomeandforeigninflationrates.Iftheforeigninflationrises(f),thenthedomesticexpectedfuturespotratesS1declines.第四十八頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日PPPExampleSupposeinflationintheUSis3%SupposethatinflationinCanadais4%ThecurrencypriceoftheCanadiandollaris$.74/C$.WhatistheexpectedpriceoftheCanadiandollarinoneyear?Answer:S1 =(1+h)=1.03=.9903=
S1
S0 (1+f)1.04.74Hence,S1=.74*.9903=$.732822/C$,aslightdeclinefrom$.74.第四十九頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日QualificationsofPPP
PPPissensitivetothestartingpoint,S0.ThebasetimeperiodmaynotinequilibriumDifferencesinthetradedgoods,orcross-culturaldifferences,maypreventthelawofonepricetoequilibratepricedifferences.Theinflationrateusedmayincludesomenon-tradedgoods.PPPtendstoworkbetterinthelongrunthaninshortrunchangesininflationaryexpectations.第五十頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日Trade-WeightedExchangeRateIndexWithmanycountriesandmanyexchangerates,whetheracurrencyroseorfelliscomplex.Wetendtocombinethecostofforeigncurrencyintoanindexbasedontheamountoftradetoeachcountry.Thetrade-weightedexchangerateindexisameasureofthevalueofthedollar.Theindex,EER,isweightedbytheamountoftradewithothercountries,wit.Anindexofthechangeinvalueofpairsofcurrenciessinceabaseyear,eI$it.If£.40/$istheexchangerateinthebaseyearandisnow£.60/$,thentheindexis(£.60/$)/(£.40/$)·100=150.Thismeansthatthedollaris50%moreexpensivetotheBritish.Theindexis:第五十一頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日InternationalTradeandTradingBlocs
Withnobarrierstotradeinafreetradeblock,suchaswehaveinNorthAmericabecauseofNAFTA,tradeexpandsIn1980,33%ofUStradewasinNorthAmerican.In1999,thatnumberis47%.In1980,57%ofEuropeantradewasinEurope.In1999,thatpercentageroseto61%In1980,13%oftradeinSouthAmericaintheblocknowasMERCOSURwaswithinthatregion.In1999,thatpercentageroseto22%Ineachcase,freertradewithintheregionledtomoreintraregionaltrade.SeeTable6.3onpage263.第五十二頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日RealTermsofTrade
Example:page265Table6.4
AbsoluteCostUS AbsoluteCostJapanCarburetors $120 ¥10,000MemoryChips $300 ¥8,000 Thequestionis:Whichcountryshouldmakecarburetorsandwhichshouldmakechips?第五十三頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日ComparativeAdvantageCountriesorfirmsshouldproducemoreofthosegoodsforwhichtheyhavelowerrelativecost.
RelativeCostinUS RelativeCostinJapanCarburetors .4Chips=$120/$300 1.25ChipsComputerChips 2.5Carb=$300/$120 .8Carburetors
Itcosts$120intheUStomakeacarburetorand$300tomakechips,the“cost”ofacarburetoristhe.4chipsforegone(taketheratio$120/$300tofind.4chips).TheUSrelativecostofcarburetorsismuchlowerthanthatoftheJapanese(1.25Chips),whereastheJapaneserelativecostofchips(.8Carburetors)ismuchlowerthanthatoftheUS.JapanshouldmakechipsandUSshouldmakecarburetors.第五十四頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日GainsfromComparativeAdvantageInthisexample,supposethatbothcountriescurrentlymake1carburetorand1chip.Worldproductionis2carburetorsand2memorychipsbeforetrade.Now,lettheUSmakeallofthecarburetors.Sinceeachchipgivenupis2.5carburetors,theUSnowmakes3.5carburetors(theonetheyweremakingandthe2.5extraonesmade).LetalsoJapanspecializeinmemorychips.Theystopmakingthecarburetorandmakeinstead1.25chips.Alongwiththeoriginalchip,theymake2.25chips.Worldproductionroseto3.5carburetorsand2.25chipsthroughcomparativeadvantage.Bothcountrieswillbericherbythistrade.第五十五頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日Restrictions
onFreeTradeTariffsExpandsdomesticproductionButraisesthepriceforconsumersImportquotasRaisesthepriceforconsumersExchangeratecontrolsReducestradeLargerfreetraderegionscalledtradingblocsEuropeanCommunityandtheEuroNAFTAExpansionofNAFTAwithLatinAmericaandMERCOSURAttemptsto
ExpandFreeTrade第五十六頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日SupplyandDemandAnalysisofTradeSituationwithoutatariffSmallCountry--importsoilatPwQuantityofOilDOMESTICDEMANDDOMESTICSUPPLYPw
Sd Qd Dd
AmountofoilimportedisDd-Sd第五十七頁,共六十二頁,2022年,8月28日ImpactofTariffswithS&DCurvesSituationwherePTisthepricewithatariffQuantityofOilDOMESTICDEMANDDOMESTICSUPPLYPTPw
Sd S’d D’d DdDomestic
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