雅思模擬試題readingpassage3youareadvisedtospendabout20minutesonquestions26-39whicharebasedonreadingpassage3below.theoriginsofindo-europeanlanguagesthetraditionalviewofthespreadoftheindo-europeanlanguagesholdsthatanur-language,ancestortoalltheothers,wasspokenbynomadichorsemenwholivedinwhatisnowwesternrussianorthoftheblackseanearthebeginningofthebronzeage.asthesemountedwarriorsroamedovergreaterandgreaterexpanses,theyconqueredtheindigenouspeoplesandimposedtheirownproto-indo-europeanlanguage,whichinthecourseofsucceedingcenturiesevolvedinlocalareasintotheeuropeanlanguagesweknowtoday.inrecentyears,however,manyscholars,particularlyarchaeologists,havebecomedissatisfiedwiththetraditionalexplanation.thestartingpointoftheproblemoftheoriginsofindo-europeanisnotarchaeologicalbutlinguistic.whenlinguistslookatthelanguagesofeurope,theyquicklyperceivethattheselanguagesarerelated.theconnectionscanbeseeninvocabulary,grammarandphonology(rulesforpronunciation).toillustratethenumbersfromonetoteninseveralindo-europeanlanguages.suchacomparisonmakesitclearthattherearesignificantsimilaritiesamongmanyeuropeanlanguagesandalsosanskrit,thelanguageoftheearliestliterarytextsofindia,butthatlanguagessuchaschineseorjapanesearenotmembersofthesamefamily(seefigure1).englisholdgermanlatingreeksanskritjapaneseonetwothreefourfivesixseveneightninetenainstwaithrijafidworfimfsaihssibumahtauniuntaihumunusduotresquattourquinquesexseptemoctonovemdecemheisduotreistettarespenteheksheptaoktoenneadekaekasdvatryascatvaraspancasatsaptaastanavadasahitotsufutatsumittsuyottsuitsutsumuttsunanatsuyattsukokonotsutofigure1wordsfornumbersfromonetotenshowtherelationsamongindo-europeanlanguagesandtheanomalouscharacterofjapanese,whichisnotpartofthatfamily.suchsimilaritiesstimulatedinterestintheoriginsofindo-europeanlanguages.theromancelanguagesservedasthefirstmodelforansweringthequestion.eventosomeonewithnoknowledgeoflatin,theprofoundsimilaritiesamongromancelanguageswouldhavemadeitnaturaltosuggestthattheywerederivedfromacommonancestor.ontheassumptionthatthesharedcharacteristicsoftheselanguagescamefromthecommonprogenitor(whereasthedivergencesaroselater.asthelanguagesdiverged),itwouldhavebeenpossibletoreconstructmanyofthecharacteristicsoftheoriginalproto-language.inmuchthesamewayitbecameclearthatthebranchesoftheindo-europeanfamilycouldbestudiedandahypotheticalfamilytreeconstructed,readingbacktoacommonancestorroto-indo-european.thisisthetreeapproach.thebasicprocessrepresentedbythetreemodelisoneofdivergence:whenlanguagesbecomeisolatedfromoneother,theydifferincreasingly,anddialectsgraduallydifferentiateuntiltheybecomeseparatelanguages.divergenceisbynomeanstheonlypossibletendencyinlanguageevolution.johannesschmidt,introduceda"wave"modelinwhichlinguisticchangessparedlikewaves,leadingultimatelytoconvergence;thatis,growingsimilarityamonglanguagesthatwereinitiallyquitedifferent.today,however,mostlinguiststhinkprimarilyintermsoflinguisticfamilytrees.itisnecessarytoconstructsomeexplicitmodelsofhowlanguagechangemightoccuraccordingtoaprocess-basedview.therearefourmainclassesofmodels.thefirstistheprocessofinitialcolonization,bywhichanuninhabitedterritorybecomespopulated;itslanguagenaturallybecomesthatofthecolonizers.secondareprocessesofdivergence,suchasthelinguisticdivergencearisingformseparationorisolationmentionedaboveinrelationtoearlymodelsoftheindo-europeanlanguages.thethirdgroupofmodelsisbasedonprocessesoflinguisticconvergence.thewavemodel,formulatedbyschmidtinthe1870's,isanexample,butconvergencemethodshavenotgenerallyfoundfavouramonglinguists.now,theslowandratherstaticoperationoftheseprocessesiscomplicatedbyanotherfactor:linguisticreplacement.thatfactorprovidesthebasisforafourthclassofmodels.inmanyareasoftheworldthelanguagesinitiallyspokenbytheindigenouspeoplehavecometobereplaced,fullyorpartially,bylanguagesspokenbypeoplecomingfromoutside.wereitnotforthislargecomplicatingfactor,theworld'slinguistichistorycouldbefaithfullydescribedbytheinitialdistributionofhomosapiens,followedbythegradual,ling-termworkingsofdivergenceandconvergence.solinguisticreplacementalsohasakeyroletoplayinexplainingtheoriginsoftheindo-europeanlanguages.questions26-32belowisasummaryofpartofreadingpassage3,"theoriginsofindo-europeanlanguages".readthesummaryandthenselectthebestwordorphrasefromtheboxbelowtofilleachgap.accordingtotheinformationinthereadingpassage.writethecorrespondingletters(a-l)inboxes26-32onyouranswersheet.n.b.therearemorewordsandphrasesthanyouwillneedtofillthegaps.youmayuseawordorphrasemorethanonceifyouwish.summary-modelsoflanguagechangeanswerexampletherearefourmainmodelsoflanguage……(ex)……kthefirstistheprocessofinitialcolonizationwhereanuninhabitedterritorybecomespopulated:thelanguagespokenwillthereforebethatofthe……(26)……processesof……(27)……occurwheredifferentdialects,andthenlanguages,d