1、10.Using Language Using Language AccuatelyUsing Language Clearly Using Familiar Words Choose Concrete Words Eliminate ClutterUsing Language Vividly Imagery Rhythm Using Language Appropriately Appropriateness to the OccasionAppropriateness to the AudienceAppropriateness to the Topic Appropriateness t

2、o the SpeakerUsing Language InclusivelyWords are the tools of a speakers craft. They have special uses, just like the tools of any other profession. Have you ever watched a carpenter at work? The job that would take you or me a couple of hours is done by the carpenter in 10 minutes-with the right to

3、ols. You cant drive a nail with a screwdriver or turn a screw with a hammer. It Is the same with public speaking. You must choose the right words for the job you want to do. Good speakers know how to use language accurately, clearly, vividly, appropriately, and inclusively. This chapter will explore

4、 each of these areas. Using Language Accurately Using language accurately is as vital to a speaker as using numbers accurately is to an accountant. One study-abroad student found this out the hard way. Speaking to a meeting of host families in London, he stated that all the sightseeing had been tire

5、some. What he meant was that visits to tourist attractions such as Windsor Castle and the Houses of Parliament had been tiring-that they had made him tired. But that is not the meaning of tiresome. It means boring, annoying, dull, and uninteresting-hardly the message the speaker meant to communicate

6、! Every word has shades of meaning that distinguish it from ever)r other word. As Mark Twain said, The difference between the right word and the almost right word is the difference between lightning and the lightning bug. If you look in a thesaurus, you will find that the following words are listed

7、as thesaurus synonyms: victory accomplishment successAll mean roughly the same thing-a favorable outcome. But all these words have different shades of meaning. See if you can fill in the best word to complete each of the sentences below:1.My cousins most important_ this year was getting an A in calc

8、ulus.2.Chen Xiaodans business_ results from a combination of hard work and street smarts.3.Yang Weis_ on the high bar gave him the mens individual all around gold medal in the 2008 Olympic Games. The best answers for the three statements are: 1. accomplishment 2. success 3. victory Each of the words

9、 means something a little different from the others, and each says something special to listeners* As you prepare your speeches, ask yourself constantly, What do I really want to say? “What do I really want to say? What do I really mean? When in doubt, consult a dictionary or thesaurus to make sure

10、you have the best words to express your ideas.People are different. What makes perfect sense to some may be nonsense to others. You cannot assume that what is clear to you is clear to your audience. Listeners, unlike readers, cannot turn to a dictionary or reread an authors words to discover their m

11、eaning. A speakers meaning must be immediately comprehensible; it must be so clear that there is no chance of misunderstanding. You can ensure this by using familiar words, by choosing concrete words over abstract words, and by eliminating verbal clutter.USE FAMILIAR WORDSOne of the biggest barriers

12、 to clear speech is using big, bloated words where short, sharp ones will do the job better. This is especially true when it comes to technical language that may be familiar to the speaker but not to the audience. Yet, if you work at it, you will almost always be able to translate even the most spec

13、ialized topic into clear, familiar language. Here, for instance, are two passages explaining the devastating effects of a pregnant womans drinking on her unborn child. The first passage is technically accurate, but it contains too many obscure words: The deleterious effects of alcohol on the unborn

14、child are very serious. When a pregnant woman consumes alcohol, the ethanol in the bloodstream easily crosses the placenta from mother to child and invades the amniotic fluid. This can produce a number of abnormal birth syndromes, including central-nervous-system dysfunctions, growth deficiencies, a

15、 cluster of facial aberrations, and variable major and minor malformations.Well-informed listeners may be able to figure out deleterious effects, central-nervous system dysfunctions, and facial aberrations. But these terms dont create sharp mental images of what the speaker is trying to say. Here, i

16、n contrast, is the second passage. It is utterly clear and shows what can be done with work, imagination, and a healthy respect for everyday words: When the expectant mother drinks, alcohol is absorbed into her bloodstream and distributed throughout her entire body. After a few beers or a couple mar

17、tinis, she begins to feel tipsy and decides to sober up. She grabs a cup of coffee, two aspirin, and takes a little nap. After a while sheII be fine. But while she sleeps, the fetus is surrounded by the same alcoholic content as its mother had.After being drowned in alcohol, the fetus begins to feel

18、 the effect. But it cant sober up. It cant grab a cup of coffee. It cant take a couple aspirin. For the fetuss liver, the key organ in removing alcohol from the blood, is just not developed. The fetus is literally pickled in alcohol. This kind of plain talk is what listeners want. You cannot go wron

19、g by following the advice of Winston Churchill to speak in short, homely words of common usage. If you think big words (or a lot of words are needed to impress listeners, bear in mind that Abraham Lincolns Gettysburg Address-considered the finest speech in the English language-contains 271 words, of

20、 which 251 have only one or two syllables.CHOOSE CONCRETE WORDSConcrete words refer to tangible objects-people, places, and things. They differ from abstract words, which refer to general concepts, qualities, or attributes. Carrot, pencil, nose, and door are concrete words. Humility, science, progre

21、ss, and philosophy are abstract words. Of course, few words are completely abstract or concrete. Great Wall is concrete, but In China the phrase also has abstract values of patriotism and national spirit. Usually, the more specific a word, the more concrete it is. Let us say you are talking about ba

22、sketball. Here are several words and phrases you might use:physical activity abstract/generasportsbasketballNBAYao Ming concrete/specificAs you move down the list, the words become less abstract and more concrete. You begin with a general concept (physical activity), descend to one type of activity

23、(sports), to a particular sport (basketball) to a division of that sport (NBA) to one specific professional basketball player (Yao Ming). Although abstract words are necessary to express certain kinds of ideas, they are much easier to misinterpret than are concrete words. Also, concrete words are mo

24、re likely to claim your listeners attention. A speech dominated by concrete words will almost always be clearer, more interesting, and easier to recall than one dominated by abstract words.ELIMINATE CLUTTERCluttered speech has become an international epidemic. Whatever happened to such simple words

25、as before, if, and now? When last seen they were being routed by their cluttered counterparts prior to, in the eventuality of, and at this point in time. By the same token, why cant weather forecasters say, Its raining* instead of saying:, It appears as if we are currently experiencing precipitation

26、 activity? This type of clutter forces listeners to hack through a tangle of words to discover the meaning. When you make a speech, keep your language lean and lively. Beware of using several words where one or two will do. Avoid flabby phrases. Let your ideas emerge sharply and firmly. Above all, w

27、atch out for redundant adjectives and adverbs. Inexperienced speakers (and writers) tend to string together two or three synonymous adjectives, such as a learned and educated person or a hot, steamy, torrid day. Here is part of a speech that has been revised to eliminate clutter: Born in Fujian Prov

28、ince in 1875, Qiu Jin is one of the most revered Chinese female heroines. She was a leader and a path breaking pioneer of equal rights for women. In addition to supporting womens education, she opposed the brutal, cruel tradition of foot binding. Trained in classical literature, she became a talente

29、d poet, orator, and political writer. The first woman to be a member of Sun Yatsens Kuomintang, she was tortured and executed by Qing officials in the year of 1907. Todayand-age she is enshrined beside West Lake in Hangzhou. Notice how much more concise the revised version is. No longer are the spea

30、kers ideas hidden in a thicket of wasted words. This kind of pruning is easy once you get the knack of it. The hardest part-and it is often very hard-is recognizing clutter and forcing yourself to throw away the unnecessary words. Watch for clutter when you write your speech outlines. Be prepared to

31、 revise the outline until your ideas emerge clearly and crisply.You can also help eliminate clutter by practicing your speeches with a digital recorder. As you play the speech back, keep an ear out for flabby phrases and for verbal fillers such as well, you know, and like. Practice delivering the sp

32、eech again, this time making a special effort to trim it of wasted or distracting words. This will not only make you a better public speaker, but it will help you present ideas more effectively in meetings, conversations and group discussions. Using Language VividlyJust as you can be accurate withou

33、t being clear, so you can be both accurate and clear without being interesting. Here, for example, is what Barack Obama might have said in his famous Yes, We Can speech during the 200g U.S. presidential election campaign:Giving up is something we cannot do. We must continue to persevere as Americans

34、 have always done historically. Only when we work hard* can we solve our problems. We must be positive.Here is what Obama actually said: When weve been told that were not ready, or that we shouldnt try, or that we cant, generations of Americans have responded with a simple creed that sums up the spi

35、rit of a people: Yes, we can. It was a creed written into the founding documents that declared the destiny of a nation. Yes* we can. It was whispered by slaves and abolitionists as they blazed a trail toward freedom through the darkest of nights. Yes, we can. It was sung by immigrants as they struck

36、 out from distant shores and pioneers who pushed westward against an unforgiving wilderness. Yes, we can. . . . Yes, we can to justice and equality. Yes, we can to opportunity and prosperity. Yes, we can heal this nation. Yes, we can repair this world. Yes, we can.Much more stirring, isnt it? If you

37、 want to move people with your speeches, use vivid, animated language. Although there are several ways to do this, two of the most important are imagery and rhythm.IMAGERYOne sign of a good novelist is the ability to create word pictures that let you see the red chambers, or hear the birds chirping

38、on a warm spring morning, or taste the hotpot at a Sichuan restaurant. Speakers can use imagery in much the same way to make their ideas come alive. Three ways to generate imagery are by using concrete words, simile, and metaphor. Concrete WordsAs we saw earlier in this chapter, choosing concrete wo

39、rds over abstract words is one way to enhance the clarity of your speeches. Concrete words are also the key to effective imager)r. Consider the following excerpt from Ronald Reagans famous address commemorating the 40th anniversary of D-Day. Speaking at the scene of the battle, Reagan dramatically r

40、ecounted the heroism of the U.S. Rangers who scaled the cliffs at Pointe du Hoc to help free Europe from Hitlers stranglehold: We stand on a lonely, windswept point on the northern shore of France. The air is soft, but 40 years ago at this moment, the air was dense with smoke and the cries of men, a

41、nd the air was filled with the crack of rifle fire and the roar of cannon. At dawn, on the morning of the 6th of June, 1944, 225 Rangers jumped off the British landing craft and ran to the bottom of these cliffs. The Rangers looked up and saw the enemy soldiers-at the edge of the cliffs shooting dow

42、n at them with machine guns and throwing grenades. And the American Rangers began to climb. They shot rope ladders over the face of these cliffs and began to pull themselves up. When one Ranger fell, another would take his place. When one rope was cut, a Ranger would grab another and begin his climb

43、 again. They climbed, shot back, and held their footing. Soon, one by one, the Rangers pulled themselves over the top, and in seizing the firm land at the top of these cliffs, they began to seize back the continent of Europe. Concrete words call up mental impressions of sights, sounds, touch, smell,

44、 and taste. In Reagans speech, we do not merely learn that the U.S. Rangers helped win the battle of D-Day. We visualize the Rangers landing at the foot of the cliffs. We see them fighting their way up the cliffs in the face of enemy grenades and machine guns. We hear the crack of rifle fire and the

45、 cries of the soldiers. The concrete words create images that pull us irresistibly into the speech.SimileAnother way to create imagery is through the use of simile. Simile is an explicit comparison between things that are essentially different yet have something in common. It always contains the wor

46、d like or as. Here are some examples: Virtue, like a strong and hardy plant, takes root in any place. (Plutarch) A word once spoken* like an arrow shot* can never be retracted. (The Talmud) The way of truth is like a great road; it is not hard to find. (Mencius)MetaphorYou can also use metaphor to c

47、reate imagery in your speeches. Metaphor is an implicit comparison between things that are essentially different yet have something in common. Unlike simile, metaphor does not contain the word like or as. For example: Art is the torch of a nations spirit. Li Changchun) With globalization, the same s

48、ea washes all of humankind. We are all in the same boat. There are no safe islands. (Kofi Annan) These are both brief metaphors. Sometimes, however, a speaker will develop a longer metaphor. Here is an excellent example, from Al Gores speech accepting the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to he

49、lp the world deal with climate change: The earth has a fever. And the fever is rising. The experts have told us it is not a passing affliction that will heal by itself. We asked for a second opinion. And a third. And a fourth. And the consistent conclusion, restated with increasing alarm, is that so

50、mething basic is wrong. When used effectively, metaphor-like simile-is an excellent way to bring color to a speech, to make abstract ideas concrete, to clarify the unknown and to express feelings and emotions.RHYTHMLanguage has a rhythm created by the choice and arrangement of words. Speakers, like

51、poets, sometimes seek to exploit the rhythm of language to enhance the impact of their words. Winston Churchill was a master at this. Here is a passage from one of his speeches during World War Il. To emphasize its cadence, the passage has been printed as if it were poetry rather than prose: We cann

52、ot tell what the course of this fell war will be: . . . We cannot yet see how deliverance will come. . . . But nothing is more certain than that every trace of Hitlers footsteps,every stain of his infected and corroding fingers, will be sponged and purged and, if need be,blasted from the surface of

53、the earth. The impact of the passage was heightened by Churchills superb delivery; but even by themselves the words take on an emphatic rhythm that reinforces the message. You can see why one observer said that Churchill mobilized the English language and sent it into battle. A speech, however, is n

54、ot a poem. You should never emphasize sound and rhythm at the expense of meaning. The aim is to think about ways you can use the rhythm and flow of language to enhance your meaning. Although you may never have paid much conscious attention to this subject, you can develop an ear for English vocal rh

55、ythms by study and practice. Whats more, you can easily begin using four basic stylistic devices employed by Churchill and other fine speakers to improve the rhythm of their prose.ParallelismThe first device is parallelism-the similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases, or sen

56、tences. For example:The battle is not to the strong alone; it is to the vigilant, the active, the brave. (Patrick Henry) The effects of parallelism are perhaps best illustrated by seeing what happens when it is absent. For instance, compare this statement: I speak as a Republican. I speak as a woman. I speak as a United States Senator. I speak as an American. (Margaret Chase Smith)with this one: I speak as a Republican. I speak as a woman. I speak as a United States Senator, And I am also addressing you as an American. The first statement is