1、Morphology,1 The definition of morphology,Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words, and of the rules by which words are formed. Morphology is generally divided into two fields: the study of Inflections and of Word-formation.,2 Inflection,Inflection is the man

2、ifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. Ex. number: table/tables apple/apples car/cars,2 Inflection,(b) person, finite

3、ness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked open/opens/opening/opened shout/shouts/shouting/shouted (c) case: boy/boys John/Johns university/universitys Each set in the above examples constitutes a single paradigm, that is, a set of grammatically conditioned forms all derived from a single root or st

4、em.,3 Word-formation,Word-formation, in its restricted sense, refers to the processes of word variations signalling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and the derivational (derivation). 3.1 Compound The term Compound covers a wide range of d

5、ifferent relations between lexical words. For instance,3 Word-formation,Ex. Noun compounds day + break daybreak (N+V) play + boy playboy (V+N) hair + cut haircut (N+V) call + girl callgirl (V+N) wind + mill windmill (N+N),3 Word-formation,(b) Verb compounds brain + wash brainwash (N+V) lip + read li

6、pread (N+V) baby + sit babysit (N+V) (c) Adjective compounds man + eating maneating (N+Ving) heart + felt heartfelt (N+Ved) duty + free dutyfree (N+Adj),3 Word-formation,(d) Preposition compounds in + to into through + out throughout,Some features of the English compounds,Orthographically, a compoun

7、d can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the wor

8、d stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.,3 Word-formation,3.2 Derivation Different from compounds, derivation shows the relation between stems and affixes. For instance, un + conscious unconscious nation + al national national + ize nationalize nationalize + ation nationalization I

9、n contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged. For instance,3 Word-formation,Word class changed: N V: length + en lengthen hospital + ize hospitalize un + horse unhorse dis + card discard N Adj: fool + ish foolish beast + ly beastly

10、 delight + ful delightful speech + less speechless virtue + ous virtuous,3 Word-formation,N Adj/Adv: clock + wise clockwise V N: work + er worker pay + ee payee inhabit + ant inhabitant V Adj: accept + able acceptable adore + able adorable Adj N: mean + ness meanness rapid + ity rapidity Adj V: deaf

11、 + en deafen sweet + en sweeten,3 Word-formation,Adj Adv: exact + ly exactly quick + ly quickly (b) Word class unchanged: N N: non + smoker nonsmoker ex + president expresident profit + eer profiteer book + let booklet V V: dis + obey disobey un + do undo,3 Word-formation,Adj Adj: tall + ish tallish

12、 il + logical illogical,4 Word and morpheme,44.1 Morpheme The morpheme is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. For instance, the word bar

13、ks in The dog barks consists of two morphemes in orthographic forms: bark and s, neither of which can be further divided into other smaller meaningful units. Therefore, a morpheme is the minimal unit of meaning. It is not like the sound patterns or syllables which can be further divided into segment

14、s.,4 Word and morpheme,Words may consist of one morpheme or more than one morphemes. Here are some example: 1-morpheme: boy, desire 2-morphemes: boy+ish, desir(e)+able 3-morphemes: boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+abl(e)+ity 4-morphemes: gentle+man+li+ness, un+desir(e)+able+ity 5-morpheme: un+gentle+man+li+ne

15、ss,4 Word and morpheme,4.2 Morpheme and phoneme A single phoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are identical. The phoneme /z/ in /gouz/(goes) represents the third-person singular present tense morpheme, but /z/ occurs very often when it has nothing to do with this specific morpheme. See

16、the following examples:,4 Word and morpheme,(a) bees /bi:z/ (b) bees /bi:z/ (c) raise /reiz/ In (a), the phoneme /z/ represents the plural morpheme, whereas in (b), it represents the morpheme which means possessive case. However, in (c), it means nothing at all.,5 Type of morphemes,5.1 Free morpheme

17、 and bound morpheme A free morpheme is one that may constitute a word (free form)by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance. A bound morpheme is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme, such as s in dogs, -al in national, dis- in disclose, and so on.,Thus, the word distempered has three

18、morphemes, namely, dis-, temper, and ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis- and ed are two bound morphemes. In other words, all monomorphemic words are constituted by free morphemes. Those polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes are called compounds, such as paymaster, moonw

19、alk, babysit, godfather, sunflower.,5.2 Roots Polymorphemic words other than compounds may divide into Roots and Affixes. A root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity.That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are remove

20、d. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, al and ism, what is left is the root nation.,Free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves such as black in black, blackboard, blackbird. Morphemes of this type are potentially unlimited in number in a language. However, ther

21、e are relatively few bound root morphemes in English, such as ceive in receive, perceive, conceive; -mit in remit, permit, commit, submit; -tain in retain, contain, maintain; cur in incur, recur, occur, etc.,5.3 Affix Affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when

22、added to another morpheme (the root or stem). Naturally, affixes belong to the type of bound morphemes.,Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix and infix, depending on their position with reference to the root or stem of t

23、he word. For instance, Prefix: para-, mini-, un- Suffix: -ise, -tion Infix: foot/feet, goose/geese,5.4 Root and stem A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added. Friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can b

24、e equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain two or more roots, i.e., compound, such as blackbird, girlfriend, fighter-bomber, paper-clip, landlord.,Summary,1. What is morphology? 2. Two fields of morphology: inflection and word-formation 3. Difference between word and mo

25、rpheme 4. Types of morphemes,1) Definition of morphome 2) Two types of morphemes Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.,Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have

26、to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; some roots can not stand by themselves although they have clear and definite meanings, such as “gene-” in

27、 the word “generate”, and “-ceive” in “receive”.,Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an exis

28、ting form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.

29、,Exercises,Define the following terms: morpheme inflection derivation affix compound root stem,Exercises,2. Complete the words with suitable negative prefixes: _ removable g. _ human _ formal h. _ relevant _ practicable I. _ evitable _ sensible j. _ mobile _ tangible k. _ legal _ logical l. _ discre

30、et,irremovable(揮之不去的) g. inhuman（不人道的） informal h. irrelevant impracticable(不切實際的 ) I. inevitable insensible(沒有知覺的) j. immobile(靜止的 ) intangible(無形的) k. illegal illogical l. indiscreet(輕率的),in-;ig-,il-,im-,ir-(in-在輔音n,l,m,p,r前的變體。l加在形容詞、名詞、副詞上，有：“無，不，非，未”之意，例如： incapable(不能的) incomparable（無比的） insen

31、sitive（不靈敏的） inability（不能） inconsistently（不一致的） inelastic（非彈性的） ignoble(不名譽(yù)的) ignore（裝不知） impossible（不可能的） immeasurable（不可測量的） impatientin-patientout-paitient impurity（雜質(zhì)） immoral（不道德的） illegal（非法的) illimitable（無限的） illogical（不合邏輯的） irregular（不規(guī)則） irreversible（不可逆的） irrotational（非旋轉(zhuǎn)的）,un-與in-的含義和用法相近似,un-一般是和本族語詞干或本族語里已采納的外來語詞干相結(jié)合，而in-一般是和拉丁語詞干相結(jié)合。比較： unable（不可能的）-inability（無能） unjust（不公的）-injustice（不公正） unlucky-ill-luck inanunluckyhour,偏偏，偏巧 unceasing-incessant（不斷的） unexplain