1、Explicit and Implicit Cognition and Knowledge Department of Psychology Chao-Ming Cheng,General Introduction The Metacognition Approach to the Distinction Between Explicit and Implicit Cognition and Knowledge Explicit (Conscious) Cognition and Knowledge Conscious Non-Human Organisms? When Does Human

2、Become Conscious? Language, Consciousness, and Schizophrenia Implicit (Unconscious) Cognition and Knowledge Dissociation between Conscious and Unconscious Cognition and Knowledge Evidence for Unconscious Cognition and Knowledge Experimental Paradigms for Implicit Knowledge,Comtes Critiques: Introspe

3、ction: unreliable Comtes paradox Liar paradox Hegels paradox Authority paradox Truth-value paradox “Thiss sentence contains threee errors.” Tarskis theory of truth (1956),Conscious Cognition and Control,Intentional learning Conscious memory (e.g., recall, recognition) Conscious perception,Unconsciou

4、s Cognition and Control,Reflexive behavior Instinctive behavior Visceral control Implicit perception (e.g., blind sight, agnosia, prosopagnosia) Subliminal perception Unconscious memory and Unconscious learning Incidental learning Latent learning Automatic processing of motor or cognitive skills,病人的

5、無意識心智,盲視（blindsight） （Weiskrantz et al., 1974; Weiskrantz, 1986,1990） e. g. Pateint D. B. 視覺失認癥（visual agnosia）（Humphreys 1985） e. g. Patient G. L. Patient H. J. A. 臉形失認癥（prosopagnosia）（Bauer, 1984） e. g. Patient L. F. 失憶癥（anterograde amnesia）（Warrington these mechanisms in turn project back to the

6、gate control system. The T cells project to the action system +, excitation; -, inhibition. (From Melzack, 1993).,2. Auditory and visual recognition DeCasper there is a failure to establish unequivocal dominance. Normal inter-hemispheric integration: Inhibition of any awareness by the verbally expre

7、ssive hemispheric consciousness that it actually receives and sends thoughts, intentions, and feelings from and to another consciousness. In schizophrenia this integration is disturbed with the result that the LH consciousness becomes aware of an influence from an “external” force, which in fact is

8、the RH.,Implicit (Unconscious) Cognition and Knowledge Dissociation between Conscious and Unconscious Cognition and Knowledge Evidence for Unconscious Cognition and Knowledge Experimental Paradigms for Implicit Learning,Implicit (Unconscious) Cognition and Knowledge Implicit cognition and knowledge

9、occurs when the processes by which information is acquired and the content of this information are unavailable to ones conscious awareness. Direct tests: Direct tests encourage performance on the basis of consciously available information. Indirect tests: Indirect tests avoid encouraging the use of

10、conscious knowledge. Implicit learning is demonstrated when indirect tests reflect knowledge acquisition and direct tests do not.,Figure 7. Number of articles published with implicit memory and implicit learning in their titles., 在辭典中共出現(xiàn)107次，第1筆到第35筆：,【北口馬】 【保馬法】 【保甲法】 【保久乳】 【保險法】 【保養(yǎng)廠】 【板起臉】 【補給品】

11、【跑解馬】 【跑野馬】 【普米語】 【馬口鐵】,【馬起臉】 【馬祖島】 【馬尾港】 【馬尾藻】 【滿可以】 【莽古歹】 【米老鼠】 【母老虎】 【反打瓦】 【打粉底】 【打底稿】 【打體己】,【打緊板】 【打槳桿】 【打診法】 【打水鼓】 【打野火】 【膽小鬼】 【點點點】 【點檢所】 【討老腳】 【討野火】 35.【李總統(tǒng)府】 36.【打軟腿兒】,文章要分段，將材料依順序排列，使內容有組織，讀起來才為條理清楚。 由很多段落組成一篇完整的文章，惡些段落，就叫做文章的結構，依照古人的說法，一篇文章的結構應該要有下列四段，每一段都有不同的功用。 起：文章的開頭。 承：開頭之後，敘述所要寫的材料。

12、轉：材料的擴充、轉向、舉例等，是分量較多的地方。 合：文章的結束。,文章的結構,文章要分成許多段，一段接一段，把要說的話說完，才會成為一篇好的作文。 三年級的作文，通常分成三段或四段即可。以下分開說明： （一）分成三段來寫文章，把內容分成先說、再說、後說三部份，如果要寫的內容比較多，可以把再說分成幾個小節(jié)來寫。例如：第六課的課文分成三段，其中的第二段分成三個小節(jié)來寫。 （二）分成四段來寫的文章，把內容分成先說、再說、進一步說、後說四部份。例如：第二課和第四課的課文，都是分成四段來寫的文章。 文章有好的分段，讀起來清楚明白，就會是一篇好文章。 說說看：第一課桃花開了的課文，如果分成三段，你要怎麼

13、分？如果分成四段，你要怎麼分？,如何作文,Figure 8. Stimulus material used in the age estimation study (Is this man 25 or 35 years old?). Note that the quality of the picture is deliberately low to hide details (texture of skin etc.).,Figure 9. Stimulus material used in the age estimation study (Is this woman more than

14、25 years old?) Note that the quality of the picture is deliberately low to hide details (texture of skin etc.).,Two Types of Language Learning: Conscious and Unconscious,Krashen (1981) First language: Acquisition, mostly unconscious Second language: Learning, conscious,Figure 10. Examples of Chinese

15、 characters, pseudocharacters, and noncharacters.,CHARACTER PSEUDOCHARACTER NONCHARACTER ,Implicit processes in medical diagnosis The acute abdominal pain perforated ulcer, appendicitis, bowel obstruction, dyspepsia, diverticular disease, cholecystitis, pancreatitis, or renal colic. Diagnosis in mot

16、or mechanics, system analyst, football coaches,Three possibilities: Basic science knowledge is only important for beginners. As expertise develops, clinical achmen replaces biomedical knowledge in medical decision making. Experts do not forget biomedical knowledge, they just do use it in diagnostic

17、decision making. Basic science knowledge becomes implicit and is used automatically; it is implicit, expert clinicians are not aware that they are using this knowledge and, therefore, they do not verbalize it.,The paradox of experts: There is a major bottleneck in the process of experts imparting th

18、eir expertise to others. There is a difference between what experts say they do and what they actually do; they are often unaware of the nature of their secrets (expertise). They actually do not know how they do what they do. Methodological problems: Interview with experts (knowledge engineering; MY

19、CIN, NEOMYCIN). The expertise may be context-sensitive, and so will not be accessed in the interview situations.,Experimental Paradigms for Implicit Learning,Artificial grammar learning Learning in the control of dynamic systems Serial (sequence) learning Covariation learning,Figure 11. Artificial g

20、rammar learning (Reber, 1967, 1969, 1976; Reber & Allen, 1978).,Figure 12.,Covariation learning (Lewicki, Hill, & Sasaki, 1989) Materials: Simulated brain scans (i.e., patterns of randomly distributed computer graphics characters resembling the shape of a brain). Task: Learning phase: For each brain

21、 scan, subjects were informed whether it was form an intelligent or a nonintelligent person. The scans of the two groups differed only in a tiny detail: A certain graphics character occurred in the scans of one group with a frequency of 13% and that of the other group with a frequency of 17%. Test phase: Subjects had to rate the intelligence of new brain scans. Results: Subjects performed correctly, but they were not aware of the c