1、第二語言相關(guān)學(xué)習(xí)策略第1頁，共24頁，2022年，5月20日，21點(diǎn)53分，星期日A gradual but significant shift over the last few decades resulting in less emphasis on teachers and teaching and greater stress on learners and learning. This change reflected in language education and applied linguistics: the Northeast Conference (1990) ent

2、itled Shifting the Instructional Focus to the Learner and annual Learners Conferences held in conjuction with the TESL Canada convention since 1991, to key works on the learner-centred curriculum (Nunan, 1988, 1995) and learner-centredness as language education (Tudor, 1996). 第2頁，共24頁，2022年，5月20日，21

3、點(diǎn)53分，星期日Later Mayer (1988) more specifically defined LS as behaviours of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner processes information (p. 11). Clearly, LS are involved in all learning, regardless of the content and context. 第3頁，共24頁，2022年，5月20日，21點(diǎn)53分，星期日LS are thus used in learnin

4、g and teaching math, science, history, languages and other subjects, both in classroom settings and more informal learning environments. 第4頁，共24頁，2022年，5月20日，21點(diǎn)53分，星期日OMalley and Chamot (1990) defined LS as the special thoughts or behaviours that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or r

5、etain new information (p. 1). (Oxford, 1990a), Oxford (1992/1993) provides specific examples of LLS i.e., In learning ESL, Trang (1) watches U.S. TV soap operas, (2) guesses the meaning of new expressions(3) predicting what will come next 第5頁，共24頁，2022年，5月20日，21點(diǎn)53分，星期日Strategies are tools for (4) t

6、he self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative ability. (Oxford, 1992/1993, p. 18).From these definitions, a change over time may be noted: from the early focus on the product of LSS (linguistic or sociolinguistic competence), to a greater emphasis on the processes and the chara

7、cteristics of LLS. 第6頁，共24頁，2022年，5月20日，21點(diǎn)53分，星期日LLS are distinct from learning styles, which refer more broadly to a learners natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills (Reid, 1995, p. viii), there is also obvious relationship between

8、language learning style and usual or preferred language learning strategies. 第7頁，共24頁，2022年，5月20日，21點(diǎn)53分，星期日What are the Characteristics of LLS?Although the terminology is not always uniform, with some writers using the terms learner strategies (Wendin & Rubin, 1987), others learning strategies (OMa

9、lley & Chamot, 1990; Chamot & OMalley, 1994), and still others language learning strategies (Oxford, 1990a, 1996),第8頁，共24頁，2022年，5月20日，21點(diǎn)53分，星期日there are a number of basic characteristics in the generally accepted view of LLS. First, LLS are learner generated; they are steps taken by language learn

10、ers. Second, LLS enhance language learning and help develop language competence, as reflected in the learners skills in listening, speaking, reading, or writing the L2 or FL. Third, LLS may bevisible (behaviours, steps, techniques, etc.) or unseen (thoughts, mental processes). Fourth, LLS involve in

11、formation and memory (vocabulary knowledge, grammar rules, etc.). 第9頁，共24頁，2022年，5月20日，21點(diǎn)53分，星期日An important distinction exists, however, between communication and language learning strategies. Communication strategies are used by speakers intentionally and consciously in order to cope with difficu

12、lties in communicating in a L2/FL (Bialystok, 1990). 第10頁，共24頁，2022年，5月20日，21點(diǎn)53分，星期日The term LLS is used more generally for all strategies that L2/FL learners use in learning the target language, and communication strategies are therefore just one type of LLS. For all L2 teachers who aim to help de

13、velop their students communicative competence and language learning, then, an understanding of LLS is crucial. As Oxford (1990a) puts it, LLS .are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative

14、competence (p. 1). 第11頁，共24頁，2022年，5月20日，21點(diǎn)53分，星期日In addition to developing students communicative competence, LLS are important because research suggests that training students to use LLS can help them become better language learners. Early research on good language learners by Naiman, Frohlich, S

15、tern, and Todesco (1978, 1996), Rubin (1975), and Stern (1975) suggested a number of positive strategies that such students employ, ranging from using an active task approach in and monitoring ones L2/FL performance to listening to the radio in the L2/FL and speaking with native speakers. 第12頁，共24頁，

16、2022年，5月20日，21點(diǎn)53分，星期日OMalley and Chamot (1990) also suggests that effective L2/FL learners are aware of the LLS they use and why they use them. Grahams (1997) work in French further indicates that L2/FL teachers can help students understand good LLS and should train them to develop and use them. 第1

17、3頁，共24頁，2022年，5月20日，21點(diǎn)53分，星期日Skehan (1989) cautionsthere is always the possibility that the good language learning strategies.are also used by bad language learners, but other reasons cause them to be unsuccessful (p. 76). Vann and Abraham (1990) found evidence thatboth good and unsuccessful langua

18、ge learners can be active users of similar LLS, though it is important that they also discovered that their unsuccessful learners apparently.lacked.what are often called metacognitive strategies.which would enable them to assess the task and bring to bear the necessary strategies for its completion

19、(p. 192). 第14頁，共24頁，2022年，5月20日，21點(diǎn)53分，星期日A number and range of LLS are important if L2/FL teachers are to assist students both in learning the L2/FL and in becoming good language learners. 第15頁，共24頁，2022年，5月20日，21點(diǎn)53分，星期日What Kinds of LLS Are There?There are literally hundreds of different, yet oft

20、en interrelated, LLS. Oxford has developed a fairly detailed list of LLS in her taxonomy First, Oxford (1990b) distinguishes between direct LLS, which directly involve the subject matter, i.e. the L2 or FL, andindirect LLS, which do not directly involve the subject matter itself, but are essential t

21、o language learning nonetheless (p. 71). 第16頁，共24頁，2022年，5月20日，21點(diǎn)53分，星期日Second, each of these broad kinds of LLS is further divided into LLS groups. Oxford outlines three main types of direct LLS, for example. Memory strategies aid in entering information into long-term memory and retrieving inform

22、ation when needed for communication. Cognitive LLS are used for forming and revising internal mental models and receiving and producing messages in the target language. Compensation strategies are needed to overcome any gaps in knowledge of the language“ (Oxford, 1990b, p. 71). 第17頁，共24頁，2022年，5月20日

23、，21點(diǎn)53分，星期日Oxford (1990a, 1990b) also describes three types of indirect LLS. Metacognitive strageties help learners exercise executive control through planning, arranging, focusing, and evaluating their own learning. Affective LLS enable learners to control feelings, motivations, and attitudes relat

24、ed to language learning. Finally, social strategies facilitate interaction with others, often in a discourse situation (Oxford, 1990b, p. 71). 第18頁，共24頁，2022年，5月20日，21點(diǎn)53分，星期日USING LLS IN THE CLASSROOMContexts and Classes for LLS TrainingLLS and LLS training may be integrated into a variety of class

25、es for L2/FL students. One type of course that appears to be becoming more popular, especially in intensive English programmes, is one focusing on the language learning process itself.第19頁，共24頁，2022年，5月20日，21點(diǎn)53分，星期日In this case, texts such as Ellis and Sinclairs (1989) Learning to Learn English: A

26、Course in Learner Training or Rubin and Thompsons (1994) How to Be a More Successful Language Learner might be used in order to help L2/FL learners understand the language learning process, the nature of language and communication, what language learning resources are available to them, andwhat specific LLS they might use in order to improve their own vocabulary use, grammar knowledge, and L2/FL skills in reading, writing, listening, and speaking. 第20頁，共24頁，2022年，5月20日，21點(diǎn)53分，星期日Three step approach to implementing LLS training in the classroomStep 1: