自考《現(xiàn)代語言學》復習講義自考《現(xiàn)代語言學》復習講義自考《現(xiàn)代語言學》復習講義自考《現(xiàn)代語言學》復習講義編制僅供參考審核批準生效日期地址：電話：傳真:郵編:自考《現(xiàn)代語言學》復習講義一、?？碱}型1.填空2.單項選擇3.判斷正誤4.解釋詞語并舉例說明對名詞解釋并舉一兩個例子進行說明5.回答問題做題要求：用英文進行答題。二、各章節(jié)學習要點Chapter1Introduction（緒論）islinguisticsDefinition（語言學的定義）Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Linguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,.,English,Chinese,Arabic,andLatin,butinlanguageingeneral.TheScopeoflinguistics（語言學的研究范疇）—4Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics(普通語言學).Thisdealswiththebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudy,incontrasttothosebranchesofstudywhichrelatelinguisticstotheresearchofotherareas.Mainbranchesoflinguistics語言學的主要分支：1）phonetics（語音學）2)phonology（音系學）3)morphology（形態(tài)學）4)syntax（句法學）5)semantics（語義學）6)pragmatics（語用學）Thestudyofalltheseaspectsoflanguageformsthecoreoflinguistics.Findingsinlinguisticstudiescanoftenbeapplie3dtothesolutionofsuchpracticalproblemsastherecoveryofspeechability.Thestudyofsuchapplicationsisgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.Macrolinguistics宏觀語言學：1)Psycholingusitcs(心理語言學)；2)Sociolinguistics(社會語言學)；3)Anthropologicallinguistics(人類語言學)；4)Computationallinguistics(計算語言學)Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics—71.3.1Prescriptivevs.descriptive （Examples:Don’tsayX.Peopledon’tsayX.Modernlinguistics,.,linguisticstudycarriedoutinthiscenturyismostlydescriptive.1.3.2Synchronicvs.diachronic （共時性和歷時性）Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachronicstudy.1.3.3Speechandwriting Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.1.3.4Langueandparole （語言和言語）ThedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolewasmadebytheSwisslinguistF.deSaussureintheearly20thcentury.1.3.5Competenceandperformance （語言能力和語言運用）SimilartoSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleisthedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance,whichwasproposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’WhileSaussure’sdistinctionandChomsky’sareverysimilar,theydifferatleastinthatSaussuretookasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.2.Whatislanguage DefinitionsoflanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.(語言是人類在交際中使用的一套任意的聲音符號系統(tǒng)。)Languagedistinguishesusfromanimalsbecauseitisfarmoresophisticatedthananyanimalcommunicationsystem.Designfeatures—14DesignfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunicationAframeworkwasproposedbytheAmericanlinguistCharlesHockett.Hespecifiedtwelvedesignfeatures,fiveofwhichwillbediscussedhere.1)Arbitrariness（任意性）Languageisarbitrary.Thismeansthatthereisnologicalrelationshipbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Whilelanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.Thearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.2)Productivity(創(chuàng)造性)Productivityisuniquetohumanlanguage.3)Duality(雙重性)Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Atthelowerorthebasiclevelthereisastructureofsounds,whichismeaningless.4)Displacement（移位性）Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfutureorinfar-awayplaces.Incontrast,noanimalcommunicationpossessthisfeature.5)Culturaltransmission(文化傳遞性)Whilehumancapacityoflanguagehasageneticbasis,.,wewereallbornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.Chapter2Phonology(音系學)1.Thephonicmediumoflanguage（語言的聲音媒介）—16Speechandwritingarethetwomediaorsubstancesusedbynaturallanguagesasvehiclesforcommunication.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechismorebasicthanwriting.Forlinguists,thestudyofsoundsisofgreaterimportancethanthatofwriting;theirdadaforinvestigationandanalysisaremostlydrawnfromauthentic,everydayspeech.(語音學)Whatisphonetics—17Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.articulatoryphonetics(發(fā)音語音學)；auditoryphonetics(聽覺語音學)；acousticphonetics(聲學語音學)Ofthethreebranchesofphonetics,thelongestestablished,anduntilrecentlythemosthighlydeveloped,isarticulatoryphonetics.Organsofspeech(發(fā)音器官)—22Thearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingarecontainedinthreeimportantareasorcavities:thepharyngealcavity(咽腔)—thethroat,theoralcavity(口腔)—themouth,andthenasalcavity(鼻腔)—thenose.(人類的發(fā)聲器官都被包括在三個重要的地方或腔道里；咽腔—即咽喉；口腔—即嘴；和鼻腔—即鼻子。)Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds—broadandnarrowtranscriptions(語音的正字標音法—寬式標音法和嚴式標音法)Twowaystotranscribespeechsoundsarenowavailable.Oneisthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonlyandtheotheristhetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics(附加符號).Theformeriscalledbroadtranscription.Thisisthetranscriptionnormallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooks.Thelatteriscallednarrowtranscription.Thisisreallythetranscriptionrequiredandusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.Withthehelpofthediacriticstheycanfaithfullyrepresentasmuchofthefinedetailsasitisnecessaryfortheirpurpose.Chapter3Morphology(形態(tài)學) (形態(tài)學的定義)Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Morphologyisdividedintotwosub-branches:inflectionalmorphology(屈折形態(tài)學)andlexicalorderivationalmorphology（詞匯或派生詞匯學）.Theformerstudiestheinflectionsandthelatterthestudyofword-formation.(詞素)Morpheme:thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage（詞素：語言最小的意義單位） Justasaphonemeisthebasicunitinthestudyofphonology,soisamorphemethebasicunitinthestudyofmorphology. Themeaningmorphemesconveymaybeoftwokinds:lexicalmeaningandgrammaticalmeaning(詞匯意義和語法意義).Themorphemessuchas“man”,“-ly”,“teach”,“-er”,“dark”,“-en”in“manly”,“teacher”,“darken”conveyalexicalmeaning,whilethemorphemessuchas“-es”,“-ed”,“-ing”in“teaches”,“played”,“raining”conveyagrammaticalmeaning. 鏈接：Morphemeisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical,.boys---boy+-sindicatespluralitychecking---check+-ingdisappointment---dis-+appoint+-mentTypesofmorphemesMorphemesareclassifiedintofreemorphemesandboundmorphemes. freemorpheme(自由詞素)root(詞根)morphemeboundmorpheme（粘著詞素）inflectionalaffix(屈折詞綴)prefix（前綴）affix(詞綴)derivationalaffixsuffix（后綴)）Freemorphemesaremorphemeswhichareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesorincombinationwithothermorphemes.Takehelp,quick,able,warmforexample,theycanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves,atthesametime,theycanalsobeusedincombinationwithothermorphemesasinhelper,quicken,disable,warm-hearted.Boundmorphemesaremorphemesarethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.Boundmorphemesincludetwotypes:rootsandaffixes.Arootisoftenseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.Forexample,theroot“geo-”bearsthemeaningof“theearth”;whenitcombineswithanotherroot“-ology”,meaning“abranchoflearning”,wegettheword“geology”,whichmeans“thestudyoftheearth’sstructure.”Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational.Inflectionalaffixesorinflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree,andcase.TheinflectionalaffixesinEnglishinclude:-(e)s,indicatingpluralityofnouns-(e)s,indicatingthirdpersonsingular,presenttense-(e)d,indicatingpasttenseforallthreepersons-ing,indicatingprogressiveaspect-er,indicatingcomparativedegreeofadjectivesandadverbs-est,indicatingsuperlativedegreeofadjectivesandadverbs-‘s,indicatingthepossessivecaseofnounsDerivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.ThisisaverycommonwaytocreatenewwordsinEnglish.Suchawayofword-formationiscalledderivation(派生法)andthenewwordformedbyderivationiscalledaderivative(派生詞).Theexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem(詞干).Astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself..tolerate root“toler-”+affix“-ate”quick freemorpheme“quick”+affix“-ly”carelessness freemorpheme“care”+affix“-less”+derivative“careless”+affix“-ness”Accordingtotheitspositioninthenewword,affixesaredividedintotwokinds:prefixes(前綴)andsuffixes(后綴).Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.Exceptionsaretheprefixes“be-”and“en(m)-”Addedtoadjectivesornounstheyturnthewordsintoverbs,.little-belittle,large-enlarge,rich-enrich,body-embody.Suffixesareaddedtotheendofstems;theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.2.2.3MorphologicalrulesInusingthemorphologicalrules,wemustguardagainstovergeneralization.Differentwordsmayrequiredifferentaffixestocreatethesamechange.AknowledgeofthederivationalaffixesandthemorphologicalrulesisveryhelpfulinourstudyofEnglishespeciallyforenlar