ConsciousnessandtheTwo-TrackMindConsciousness,modernpsychologistsbelieve,isanawarenessofourselvesandourenvironment.FormsofConsciousnessBillLing/DigitalVision/GettyImagesChristineBruneStuartFranklin/MagnumPhotosAPPhoto/RicardoMazalanSelectiveAttentionOurconsciousawarenessprocessesonlyasmallpartofallthatweexperience.Weintuitivelymakeuseoftheinformationwearenotconsciouslyawareof.Video1InattentionalBlindnessInattentionalblindnessreferstotheinabilitytoseeanobjectorapersoninourmidst.Simons&Chabris(1999)showedthathalfoftheobserversfailedtoseethegorilla-suitedassistantinaballpassinggame.DanielSimons,UniversityofIllinoisChangeBlindnessChangeblindnessisaformofinattentionalblindnessinwhichtwo-thirdsofindividualsgivingdirectionsfailedtonoticeachangeintheindividualaskingfordirections.?1998PsychonomicSocietyInc.ImageprovidedcourtesyofDanielJ.Simmons.Sleep&DreamsSleep–theirresistibletemptertowhomweinevitablysuccumb.Mysteriesaboutsleepanddreamshavejuststartedunravelinginsleeplaboratoriesaroundtheworld.Video2BiologicalRhythmsandSleepCircadianRhythmsoccurona24-hourcycleandincludesleepandwakefulness.Termedour“biologicalclock,”itcanbealteredbyartificiallight.Lighttriggersthesuprachiasmaticnucleustodecrease(morning)melatoninfromthepinealglandandincrease(evening)itatnightfall.Measuringsleep:Aboutevery90minutes,wepassthroughacycleoffivedistinctsleepstages.SleepStagesHankMorgan/RainbowAwakebutRelaxedWhenanindividualcloseshiseyesbutremainsawake,hisbrainactivityslowsdowntoalargeamplitudeandslow,regularalphawaves(9-14cps).Ameditatingpersonexhibitsanalphabrainactivity.Duringearly,lightsleep(stages1-2)thebrainentersahigh-amplitude,slow,regularwaveformcalledthetawaves(5-8cps).Apersonwhoisdaydreamingshowsthetaactivity.SleepStages1-2ThetaWavesDuringdeepestsleep(stages3-4),brainactivityslowsdown.Therearelarge-amplitude,slowdeltawaves(1.5-4cps).SleepStages3-4Stage5:REMSleepAfterreachingthedeepestsleepstage(4),thesleepcyclestartsmovingbackwardtowardsstage1.Althoughstillasleep,thebrainengagesinlow-amplitude,fastandregularbetawaves(15-40cps)muchlikeawake-arousedstate.ApersonduringthissleepexhibitsRapidEyeMovements(REM)andreportsvividdreams.90-MinuteCyclesDuringSleepWitheach90-minutecycle,stage4sleepdecreasesandthedurationofREMsleepincreases.Whydowesleep?Wespendone-thirdofourlivessleeping.Ifanindividualremainsawakeforseveraldays,immunefunctionandconcentrationdeterioratesandtheriskofaccidentsincreases.JoseLuisPelaez,Inc./CorbisSleepDeprivationFatigueandsubsequentdeath.Impairedconcentration.Emotionalirritability.Depressedimmunesystem.Greatervulnerability.AccidentsFrequencyofaccidentsincreasewithlossofsleepSleepTheoriesSleepProtects:Sleepinginthedarknesswhenpredatorsloomedaboutkeptourancestorsoutofharm’sway.SleepHelpsusRecover:Sleephelpsrestoreandrepairbraintissue.SleepHelpsusRemember:Sleeprestoresandrebuildsourfadingmemories.SleepTheories4.SleepFeedsCreativeThinking:Connectionshavebeenmadebetweensleeptothethinkingprocessandlearning.Also,manyartisticandscientificrevelationshavebeenattributedtosleep.5.Sleepmayplayaroleinthegrowthprocess:Duringsleep,thepituitaryglandreleasesgrowthhormone.Olderpeoplereleaselessofthishormoneandsleepless.Insomnia:Apersistentinabilitytofallasleep.Narcolepsy:Overpoweringurgetofallasleepthatmayoccurwhiletalkingorstandingup.Sleepapnea:Failuretobreathewhenasleep.SleepDisordersChildrenaremostproneto:Nightterrors:Thesuddenarousalfromsleepwithintensefearpaniedbyphysiologicalreactions(e.g.,rapidheartrate,perspiration)whichoccurduringStage4sleep.Sleepwalking:AStage4disorderwhichisusuallyharmlessandunrecalledthenextday.Sleeptalking:Aconditionthatrunsinfamilies,likesleepwalking.SleepDisordersDreamsThelinkbetweenREMsleepanddreaminghasopenedupaneweraofdreamresearch.WhatWeDreamNegativeEmotionalContent:8outof10dreamshavenegativeemotionalcontent.FailureDreams:Peoplecommonlydreamaboutfailure,beingattacked,pursued,rejected,orstruckwithmisfortune.SexualDreams:Contrarytoourthinking,sexualdreamsaresparse.Sexualdreamsinmenare1in10;andinwomen1in30.ManifestContent:AFreudiantermmeaningthestorylineofdreams.WhyWeDreamWishFulfillment:SigmundFreudsuggestedthatdreamsprovideapsychicsafetyvalvetodischargeunacceptablefeelings.Thedream’smanifest(apparent)contentmayalsohavesymbolicmeanings(latentcontent)thatsignifyourunacceptablefeelings.InformationProcessing:Dreamsmayhelpsift,sort,andfixaday’sexperiencesinourmemories.WhyWeDreamPhysiologicalFunction:Dreamsprovidethesleepingbrainwithperiodicstimulationtodevelopandpreserveneuralpathways.Neuralnetworksofnewbornsarequicklydeveloping;therefore,theyneedmoresleep.WhyWeDreamActivation-SynthesisTheory:Suggeststhatthebrainengagesinalotofrandomneuralactivity.Dreamsmakesenseofthisactivity.CognitiveDevelopment:Someresearchersarguethatwedreamasapartofbrainmaturationandcognitivedevelopment.AlldreamresearchersbelieveweneedREMsleep.WhendeprivedofREMsleepandthenallowedtosleep,weshowincreasedREMsleepcalledREMRebound.DreamTheoriesSummaryHypnosisHypnos:Greekgodofsleep

Asocialinteractioninwhichoneperson(thehypnotist)suggeststoanother(thesubject)thatcertainperceptions,feelings,thoughts,orbehaviorswillspontaneouslyoccur.FactsandFalsehoodThosewhopracticehypnosisagreethatitspowerresidesinthesubject’sopennesstosuggestion.Cananyoneexperiencehypnosis?Yes,tosomeextent.Canhypnosisenhancerecallofforgottenevents?No.FactsandFalsehoodCanhypnosisbetherapeutic?Yes.Self-suggestioncanhealtoo.Canhypnosisalleviatepain?Yes...Canhypnosisforcepeopletoactagainsttheirwill?No.ExplainingtheHypnotizedStateSocialInfluenceTheory:Hypnoticsubjectsmaysimplybeimaginativeactorsplayingasocialrole.DividedConsciousnessTheory:Hypnosisisaspecialstateofdissociated(divided)consciousness(Hilgard,1986,1992).(Hilgard,1992)CourtesyofNewsandPublicationsService,StanfordUniversityBothTheoriesMimiForsythDrugsandConsciousnessPsychoactiveDrug:Achemicalsubstancethataltersperceptionsandmood(affectsconsciousness).Dependence&AddictionContinueduseofapsychoactivedrugproducestolerance.Withrepeatedexposuretoadrug,thedrug’seffectlessens.Thusittakesgreaterquantitiestogetthedesiredeffect.Withdrawal&DependenceWithdrawal:Uponstoppinguseofadrug(afteraddiction),usersmayexperiencetheundesirableeffectsofwithdrawal.Dependence:Absenceofadrugmayleadtoafeelingofphysicalpain,intensecravings(physicaldependence),andnegativeemotions(psychologicaldependence).MisconceptionsAboutAddictionAddictivedrugsquicklycorrupt.Addictioncannotbeevoluntarily.Addictionisnodifferentthanrepetitivepleasure-seekingbehaviors.Addictionisacravingforachemicalsubstance,despiteitsadverseconsequences(physical&psychological).PsychoactiveDrugsPsychoactivedrugsaredividedintothreegroups.DepressantsStimulantsHallucinogensDepressantsDepressantsaredrugsthatreduceneuralactivityandslowbodyfunctions.Theyinclude:AlcoholBarbituratesOpiatesDepressantsAlcoholaffectsmotorskills,judgment,andmemory…andincreasesaggressivenesswhilereducingselfawareness.DrinkingandDrivingDanielHommer,NIAAA,NIH,HHSRayNg/Time&LifePictures/GettyImagesDepressants2. Barbiturates:Drugsthatdepresstheactivityofthecentralnervoussystem,reducinganxietybutimpairingmemoryandjudgment.Nembutal,Seconal,andAmytalaresomeexamples.Depressants(Narcotics)3.Opiates:Opiumanditsderivatives(morphineandheroin)depressneuralactivity,temporarilylesseningpainandanxiety.Theyarehighlyaddictive.

StimulantsStimulantsaredrugsthatexciteneuralactivityandspeedupbodyfunctions.Examplesofstimulantsare:CaffeineNicotineCocaineEcstasyAmphetaminesMethamphetaminesCaffeine&NicotineCaffeineandnicotineincreaseheartandbreathingratesandotherautonomicfunctionstoprovideenergy.

WhyDoPeopleSmoke?Peoplesmokebecauseitissociallyrewarding.Smokingisalsoaresultofgeneticfactors.RusselEinhorn/TheGammaLiasonNetworkWhyDoPeopleSmoke?Nicotinetakesawayunpleasantcravings(negativereinforcement)bytriggeringepinephrine,norepinephrine,dopamine,andendorphins.Nicotineitselfisrewarding(positivereinforcement).EcstasyEcstasyorMethylenedioxymethamphetamine(MDMA)isastimulantandmildhallucinogen.Itproducesaeuphorichighandcandamageserotonin-producingneurons,whichresultsinapermanentdeflationofmoodandimpairmentofmemory.MethamphetamineApowerfulstimulantwhichischeaptoproduceandhighlyaddictive.Hasdestructiveconsequencestothehealthofthemindandbody.CocaineCocaineinducesimmediateeuphoriafollowedbyacrash.Crack,aformofcocaine,canbesmoked.Otherformsofcocainecanbesniffedorinjected.

HallucinogensHallucinogensarepsychedelic(mind-manifesting)drugsthatdistortperceptionsandevokesensoryimagesintheabsenceofsensoryi