ColonisationPilgrims&PuritansManifestDestinyTheFrontierTheAmericanDreamSlavery1.SomeKeyPointsSeekingthetruereligion,thePuritansfledEnglandandinAmericaattemptedtocreatea"nationofsaints"orthe“CityUponAHill〞,anintenselyreligious,thoroughlyrighteouscommunitydesignedtobeanexampleforallofEurope.ManifestDestinyisthehistoricalbeliefthattheUnitedStateswasdestinedanddivinelyordainedbytheChristianGodtoexpandacrosstheNorthAmericancontinent,fromtheAtlanticcoasttothePacificOcean.TheFrontierwasthetermappliedbyscholarstotheimpactofthezoneofunsettledlandoutsidetheregionofexistingsettlementsofEuropeans.Thatis,aspioneersmovedintothefrontierzonetheywerechangedsignificantlybytheencounter.TheAmericanDreamisthefreedomthatallowsallcitizensandmostresidentsoftheUnitedStatestopursuetheirgoalsinlifethroughhardworkandfreechoice.2.KEYPOINTSJamesFenimoreCoopercreatedacharacterinhisbookscalledHawkeye.Heisthemythichero,thetruedemocratwho,becauseheis(asD.H.Lawrencehasdescribedhim)asaintwithagun,willrightwrongsandavoidevilswhenpossible.Thischaracterbecomesthepatternforthemythicwesternhero,thecowboy,thefrontiersman,theheroofsomanycowboymoviesandTVshows.HeisavitalpartofAmericanmythologyandAmericanculture.AmericanWesternsofthe1940sand1950semphasizethevaluesofhonourandsacrifice.Westernsfromthe1960sand1970softenhaveamorepessimisticview,glorifyingarebelliousanti-heroandhighlightingthecynicism,brutalityandinequalityoftheAmericanWest.Whenthepopularityoftelevisionexplodedinthelate1940sand1950s,westernsquicklybecameastapleofsmall-screenentertainment.AgreatmanyB-movieWesternswereairedonTVastimefillers,whileanumberoflong-runningTVWesternsbecameclassicsintheirownright.JamesFenimoreCooperhasrightlybeencalledthefirstAmericannovelist.InhisLeatherstockingTales,Cooperwriteschieflyaboutconflict–managainstman,andmanagainstenvironment,butbotharesignificantlyAmericaninsetting.Throughoutthenovelsistheloomingfactthatmaniscopingwiththefrontier,tryingtoconquer,tame,andpossessit;itisthis,infact,whichleadstotheobviousconflictsofmanversusman.ThemostimportantcharacterinthesenovelsisHawkeye.Thischaracterbecomesthepatternforthemythicwesternhero,thecowboy,thefrontiersman,theheroofsomanycowboymoviesandTVshows.HeisavitalpartofAmericanmythologyandAmericanculture.TheWesternisafictiongenreseeninfilm,television,radio,literature,paintingandothervisualarts.Westernsaredevotedtotellingstoriessetprimarilyinthelaterhalfofthe19thcenturyinwhatbecametheWesternUnitedStates(knownastheAmericanOldWestorWildWest.THEWESTERNAmericanWesternsofthe1940sand1950semphasizethevaluesofhonourandsacrifice.Westernsfromthe1960sand1970softenhaveamorepessimisticview,glorifyingarebelliousanti-heroandhighlightingthecynicism,brutalityandinequalityoftheAmericanWest.ThepopularperceptionoftheWesternisastorythatcentresonthelifeofasemi-nomadicwanderer,usuallyacowboyoragunfighter.ThemesTheWesternusuallytellsasimplemoralitytale,usuallysetagainstthespectacularsceneryoftheAmericanWest.Westernsoftenstresstheharshnessofthewildernessandfrequentlysettheactioninadesert-likelandscape.Apartfromthewilderness,itisusuallythesaloonthatemphasizesthatthisisthe"WildWest":itistheplacetogoformusic(raucouspianoplaying),girls(oftenprostitutes),gambling(drawpokerorfivecardstud),drinking(beerorwhiskey),brawlingandshooting.Often,thevastlandscapebecomesmorethanavividbackdrop;itbecomesacharacterinthefilm.JohnFord–perhapsthemostfamousdirectorofWesternmovies-usedMonumentValleyinArizonaasanexpressivelandscapeinfilmslikeStagecoach(1939).ThefilmsoftendepictconflictswithNativeAmericans.OtherrecurringthemesofWesternsincludeWesterntreksandgroupsofbanditsterrorisingsmalltownssuchasinTheMagnificentSeven.HighNoonisafilmthattellsthestoryofatownmarshalwhoisforcedtofaceagangofkillersbyhimself.Whenthepopularityoftelevisionexplodedinthelate1940sand1950s,westernsquicklybecameabasicingredientofsmall-screenentertainment.NotableTVWesternsincludeGunsmoke,TheLoneRanger,Laramie,Rawhide,Bonanza,TheVirginian,WagonTrain,TheBigValley,Maverick,TheHighChaparral,andmanyothers.TVWESTERNSTheLoneRangerisamaskedTexasRangerintheAmericanOldWest,whogallopsaboutrightinginjustices,usuallywiththeaidofacleverAmericanIndiansidekickcalledTonto,andhishorseSilver.RawhidewasatelevisionwesternserieswhichairedontheAmericannetworkCBSfrom1959to1966.Rawhidewasthefourthlongest-runningAmericanTVwestern.TheRoyRogersShowwasablackandwhiteAmericantelevisionseries.SomethingstothinkaboutwhenconsideringtheWesternasaculturalitem:ItshowsAmericanhistory,butdoesittellatrueandrealistichistory,orhistoryfromonlyonepointofview?HowdoesitdepicttheNativeAmerican?Theheroisoftenalmostamythicfigure:strong,brave,resourceful,andatonewithNature.He(it’susuallyahe)isalsooftenasolitary,lonerfigure.Mostoftheactionhappensonthefrontier.Whatdoesthefrontiermean?Howdopeopleactwhentheylivethere?HowhasthefrontieraffectedthewayAmericansthinkofthemselvesandtheircountry?3.KeyPointsTheColdWarwasthecontinuingstateofconflict,tensionandcompetitionthatexistedprimarilybetweentheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionandthosecountries'respectivealliesfromthemid-1940stotheearly1990s.TheColdwarwasmainlyexpressedthrough: spying weapondevelopment propaganda technologicalcompetition thespacerace nucleararmsraceThefilm“HighNoon〞didnotcontainsuchexpectedwesternarchetypesaschases,violence,action,andpicturepostcardscenery.Rather,itpresentedemotionalandmoralisticdialoguethroughoutmostofthefilm.Onlyinthelastfewminuteswerethereactionscenes.ManypeopleinterpretthemovieasacommentonAmericansocietyduringthetimeoftheColdwarandtheRedScare.Peoplelookedafterthemselvesanddidnothelptheirfriends.Thiskindofbehaviourwasseenbymanytobeun-American,buthadbeenencouragedbythescareaboutCommunists.JoeMcCarthywasnotedformakingclaimsthattherewerelargenumbersofCommunistsandSovietspiesandsympathizersinsidethefederalgovernmentandelsewhere.Theterm"McCarthyism,"coinedin1950inreferencetoMcCarthy'spractices,wassoonappliedtosimilaranti-communistpursuits.Todaythetermisusedmoregenerallytodescribedemagogic,reckless,andunsubstantiatedaccusations,aswellaspublicattacksonthecharacterorpatriotismofpoliticalopponents.Theclashbetweencommunism(共產(chǎn)主義)

andcapitalism(資本主義)beganin1917,followingtheOctoberRevolution,whenRussiaemergedastheworld'sfirstcommunistnation.ThisoutcomemadeRussian–Americanrelationsamatterofmajorlong-termconcernforleadersinbothcountries.TheColdWarwasthecontinuingstateofconflict,tensionandcompetitionthatexistedprimarilybetweentheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionandthosecountries'respectivealliesfromthemid-1940stotheearly1990s.Onthenuclearweaponsfront,theUSandtheUSSRpursuednuclearrearmamentanddevelopedlong-rangeweaponswithwhichtheycouldstriketheterritoryoftheother.CubanMissileCrisisThenucleararmsracebroughtthetwosuperpowerstothebrinkofnuclearwar.TheCubanMissileCrisisbroughttheworldclosertonuclearwarthaneverbeforeinthehistoryoftheColdWar.In1949,Mao'sRedArmydefeatedtheUS-backedKuomintang(KMT)NationalistGovernmentinChina,andtheSovietUnionpromptlycreatedanalliancewiththenewly-formedPeople'sRepublicofChina.ConfrontedwiththeChineseRevolutionandtheendoftheUSatomicmonopolyin1949,theTrumanadministrationquicklymovedtoescalateandexpandthecontainmentpolicybyreinforcingpro-Westernalliancesystemsandquadruplingspendingondefence.By1947,USpresidentHarryS.Truman'sadvisorsurgedhimtotakeimmediatestepstocountertheSovietUnion'sinfluence.TheTrumanDoctrineframedtheconflictasacontestbetween"free"peoplesand"totalitarian"regimes.InMay1938,theHouseCommitteeonUn-AmericanActivitieswasestablishedasaspecialinvestigatingcommittee.HighNoon’sproductionandreleasein1952alsointersectedwiththeRedScareandtheKoreanWar.TheMcCarthyEraJosephMcCarthywasanAmericanpolitician.Beginningin1950,McCarthybecamethemostvisiblepublicfaceofaperiodinwhichColdWartensionsfuelledfearsofwidespreadCommunistsubversion.HewasnotedformakingclaimsthattherewerelargenumbersofCommunistsandSovietspiesandsympathizersinsidethefederalgovernmentandelsewhere.Ultimately,McCarthy'stacticsandhisinabilitytosubstantiatehisclaimsledhimtobediscreditedandcensuredbytheUnitedStatesSenate.AtthetimeofMcCarthy'sspeech,CommunismwasagrowingconcernintheUnitedStates.ThisconcernwasmadeworsebytheactionsoftheSovietUnioninEasternEurope,thefallofChinatotheMaoists,andtheSoviets'developmentoftheatomicbombtheyearbefore.WiththisbackgroundandduetothesensationalnatureofMcCarthy'schargeagainsttheStateDepartment,hisspeechsoonattractedafloodofpressinterestinMcCarthy.From1950onward,McCarthycontinuedtoexploitthefearofCommunismandtopresshisaccusationsthatthegovernmentwasfailingtodealwithCommunismwithinitsranks.Theseaccusationsreceivedwidepublicitygainedhimapowerfulnationalfollowing.Publichearings(enquiries)intocommunistsubversionlastedfor36daysandwerebroadcastonlivetelevision,withanestimated20millionviewers.Afterhearing32witnessesandtwomillionwordsoftestimony,thecommittee’sdecisionwasinconclusive.ThemostfamousincidentinthehearingswasanexchangebetweenMcCarthyandthearmy'schieflegalrepresentative,JosephWelch.SeeItNow(1951-57),oneoftelevision'searliestdocumentaryseries,remainsthestandardbywhichbroadcastjournalismisjudgedforitscourageandcommitment.SEEITNOWpresentedbyEdMurrowMurrowsaidofMcCarthy:Hisprimaryachievementhasbeeninconfusingthepublicmind,asbetweentheinternalandtheexternalthreatsofCommunism.Wemustnotconfusedissentwithdisloyalty.Wemustrememberalwaysthataccusationisnotproofandthatconvictiondependsuponevidenceanddueprocessoflaw.Wewillnotwalkinfear,oneofanother.Wewillnotbedrivenbyfearintoanageofunreason,ifwedigdeepinourhistoryandourdoctrine,andrememberthatwearenotdescendedfromfearfulmen.[...]Weproclaimourselves,asindeedweare,thedefendersoffreedom,whereveritcontinuestoexistintheworld,butwecannotdefendfreedomabroadbydesertingitathome.TheactionsofthejuniorSenatorfromWisconsinhavecausedalarmandDismayamongstouralliesabroad,andgivenconsiderablecomforttoourenemies.Andwhosefaultisthat?Notreallyhis.Hedidn'tcreatethissituationoffear;hemerelyexploitedit--andrathersuccessfully.4.KEYPOINTSAftertheCivilWaritwasaseriousquestionwhetherslaveryhadbeenpermanentlyabolishedorwhethersomeformofsemi-slaverywouldappearaftertheUnionarmiesleft.AlargecivilrightsmovementarosetobringfullcivilrightsandequalityunderthelawtoallAmericans.TheCivilRightsMovementintheUnitedStateshasbeenalong,primarilynon-violentstruggletobringfullcivilrightsandequalityunderthelawtoallAmericans.ThemovementhashadalastingimpactonUnitedStatessociety,initstactics,theincreasedsocialandlegalacceptanceofcivilrights,andinitsexposureoftheprevalenceandcostofracism.Thetermusuallyreferstothepoliticalstrugglesandreformmovementsbetween1945and1970toenddiscriminationagainstAfricanAmericansandtoendlegalracialsegregation,especiallyintheU.S.South.Segregation:inmanycitiesandtownsintheSouth,African-Americanswerenotallowedtoshareataxiwithwhitesorenterabuildingthroughthesameentrance.Theyhadtodrinkfromseparatewaterfountains,useseparaterestrooms,attendseparateschools,andbeburiedinseparatecemeteries.Theywereexcludedfromrestaurantsandpubliclibraries.Manyparksbarredthemwithsignsthatread"Negroesanddogsnotallowed.〞OnDecember1,1955,ablackladynamedRosaParksrefusedtogiveupherseatonapublicbustomakeroomforawhitepassenger.Parkswasarrested,tried,andconvictedfordisorderlyconductandviolatingalocalordinance.Thiseventtriggeredamassiveprotest,andoneofthekeyorganiserswasMartinLutherKing.TheMarchonWashingtonin1963drewanestimated200,000to300,000demonstratorsgatheredinfrontoftheLincolnMemorial,whereKingdeliveredhisfamous"IHaveaDream"speech.SlaveryintheUnitedStatesbegansoonafterEnglishcolonistsfirstsettledinVirginiain1607andlastedasalegalinstitutionuntilthepassageoftheThirteenthAmendmenttotheUnitedStatesConstitutionin1865.Peter,aslavefromBatonRouge,Louisiana,1863.Thescarsarearesultofawhippingbyhisoverseer,whowassubsequentlyfiredbythemaster.Ittooktwomonthstorecoverfromthebeating.From1654until1865,slaveryforlifewaslegalwithintheboundariesofmuchofthepresentUnitedStates.ThewealthoftheUnitedStatesinthefirsthalfofthe19thcenturywasgreatlyenhancedbythelabourofAfricanAmericans.WiththeUnionvictoryintheAmericanCivilWar,theslave-laboursystemwasabolishedintheSouth.SimonLegreeandUncleTom:AscenefromUncleTom'sCabin,history'smostfamousabolitionistnovel.DuringReconstruction,itwasaseriousquestionwhetherslaveryhadbeenpermanentlyabolishedorwhethersomeformofsemi-slaverywouldappearinitsplace.AlargecivilrightsmovementarosetobringfullcivilrightsandequalityunderthelawtoallAmericans.TheCivilRightsMovementintheUnitedStateshasbeenalong,primarilynon-violentstruggletobringfullcivilrightsandequalityunderthelawtoallAmericans.TheSupremeCourt'sdecisioninPlessyv.Ferguson(1896)upheldstate-mandateddiscriminationinpublictransportationunderthe"separatebutequal"doctrine.Inmanycitiesandtowns,African-Americanswerenotallowedtoshareataxiwithwhitesorenterabuildingthroughthesameentrance.Theyhadtodrinkfromseparatewaterfountains,useseparaterestrooms,attendseparateschools,beburiedinseparatecemeteriesandevenswearonseparateBibles.Duringthelastdecadeofthe19thcenturyandthefirstdecadesofthe20thcentury,whitevigilanteslynchedthousandsofblackmales,sometimeswiththeopenassistanceofstateofficials,mostlywithintheSouth.Nowhiteswerechargedwithcrimesinanyofthesekillings.TheKuKluxKlan,whichhadlargelydisappearedafterabriefviolentcareerintheearlyyearsofReconstruction,reappearedin1915.TheKlanfocusedonpoliticalmobilization,onaplatformthatcombinedracismwithanti-immigrant,anti-Semitic,anti-Catholicandanti-unionrhetoric,butalsosupportedlynching.TheexperienceoffightingaspartofWorldWar1madeatremendousimpactontheblackmenwhoreturnedfromthearmy,creatingawidespreaddemandforequality.A.PhilipRandolphintroducedthetermthe"NewNegro"in1917;itbecamethecatchphrasetodescribethenewspiritofmilitancyandimpatienceofthepost-warera.DuringtheGreatMigration,hundredsofthousandsofAfrican-AmericansmovedtonorthernindustrialcitiesstartingbeforeWorldWarIandthrough1940.Theywerebothfleeingviolenceandsegregationandseekingjobs.AfterWorldWarI,returningAfrican-Americanveteranswerespurredbytheirexperiencestodemandequality.Oneservicemanreportedlysaidthat"IspentfouryearsintheArmytofreeabunchofDutchmenandFrenchmen,andI'mhangedifI'mgoingtolettheAlabamaversionoftheGermanskickmearoundwhenIgethome.Nosirree-bob!IwentintotheArmyanigger;I'mcomin'outaman."

RosaParksandtheMontgomeryBusBoycott,1955–1956OnDecember1,1955,RosaParksrefusedtogiveupherseatonapublicbustomakeroomforawhitepassenger.Parkswasarrested,tried,andconvictedfordisorderlyconductandviolatingalocalordinance.TheCivilRightsMovementreceivedaninfusionofenergywithastudentsit-inataWoolworth'sstoreinGreensboro,NorthCarolina.DuringthefirstandsubsequentFreedomRides,activiststravelledthroughtheDeepSouthtointegrateseatingpatternsanddesegregatebusterminals,includingrestroomsandwaterfountains.Thatprovedtobeadangerousmission.The1963“MarchonWashington〞wasacollaborativeeffortofallofthemajorcivilrightsorganizations.Nationalmediaattentionalsogreatlycontributedtothemarch'snationalexposureandprobableimpact.Anestimated250,000demonstratorsgatheredinfrontoftheLincolnMemorial,whereKingdeliveredhisfamous"IHaveaDream"speech.MartinLutherKingwasfindinghimselfatoddswithfactionsoftheDemocraticParty,andhewasalsofacingchallengesfromwithintheCivilRightsMovementtothetwokeytenetsuponwhichthemovementhadbeenbased:integrationandnon-violence.StokelyCarmichaelbecameoneoftheearliestandmostarticulatespokespersonsforwhatbecameknownasthe"BlackPower"movement..SeveralpeopleengagingintheBlackPowermovementstartedtogainmoreofasenseinblackprideandidentityaswell.Ingainingmoreofasenseofaculturalidentity,severalblacksdemandedthatwhitesnolongerrefertothemas"Negroes"butas"Afro-Americans."BlackPowerwasmademostpublichoweverbytheBlackPantherPartywhichfoundedinOakland,California,in1966.ThisgroupfollowedideologystatedbyMalcolmXusinga"by-any-meansnecessary"approachtostoppinginequality.BlackPowerwastakentoanotherlevelofpublicattentionwhen,in1968,TommieSmithandJohnCarlos,whilebeingawardedthegoldandbronzemedals,respectively,atthe1968SummerOlympics,donnedhumanrightsbadgesandeachraisedablack-glovedBlackPowersaluteduringtheirpodiumceremony.1963August28-MarchonWashington.Dr.MartinLutherKinggiveshis“Ihaveadream〞speech.November22-PresidentKennedyisassassinated.1965MalcolmXisshottodeathinManhattan,NewYork.BillCosbyco-starsin“ISpy〞,afirstforablackpersononAmericantelevision.1967ThemovieInthe“HeatoftheNight〞isreleased,starringSidneyPoitier.Themovie“GuessWho'sComingtoDinner〞isreleased,alsowithSidneyPoitier.1968April4-Dr.MartinLutherKingisshotandkilledinMemphis,Tennessee.DiahannCarrollstarredinthetitlerolein“Julia〞,asthefirstAfricanAmericanactresstostarinherowntelevisionserieswhereshedidnotplayadomesticworker.TommieSmithandJohnCarlosraisetheirfiststosymbolizeblackpowerandunityafterwinningthegoldandbronzemedals,respectively,atthe1968SummerOlympicGames.FirstinterracialkissonAmericantelevision,betweenNichelleNicholsandWilliamShatnerin“StarTrek〞.1975April30-Inthepilotepisodeof“StarskyandHutch〞,RichardWardplayedanAfrican-AmericanbossofWhiteAmericansforthefirsttimeonTV.1976Thenovel“Roots:TheSagaofanAmericanFamily〞byAlexHaleyispublished.1982MichaelJacksonreleases“Thriller〞,whichhasbecomethebest-sellingalbumofalltime.1983AliceWalkerreceivesthePulitzerPrizeforhernovel“TheColorPurple〞.1984“TheCosbyShow〞begins,andisregardedasoneofthedefiningtelevisionshowsofthedecade.2001ColinPowellbecomesSecretaryofState2008June3-BarackObamareceivesenoughdelegatesbytheendofstateprimariestobethepresumptiveDemocraticPartyoftheUnitedStatesnominee.August28-Atthe2008DemocraticNationalConvention,inastadiumfilledwithsupporters,BarackObamaacceptedtheDemocraticnominationforPresidentoftheUnitedStates.November4-BarackObamaelected44thPresidentoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica,openinghisvictoryspeechwith,"IfthereisanyoneouttherewhostilldoubtsthatAmericaisaplacewhereallthingsarepossible;whostillwondersifthedreamofourfoundersisaliveinourtime;whostillquestionsthepowerofourdemocracy,tonightisyouranswer.“2009January20-BarackObamasworninasthe44thPresidentoftheUnitedStates.9.KEYPOINTSEarlyAmericanliteraturewasconcernedwithjournalsandrecordingdailyhistory.Itwasnotimaginative,andthePuritansgenerallyregardedimaginativeliteratureasdangerousbecauseitdistractedpeoplefromreligion.Asideaschanged,andEnlightenmentideasspreadfromEurope,imaginativeliteraturetookafootholdinAmerica.WriterslikeWashingtonIrvingandJamesFenimoreCooperwerethefirstAmericanwriterstowriteoriginallyaboutAmerica.HermanMelville’s“MobyDick〞isthoughtbymanytobeoneofthegreatestnovelseverwritteninEnglish.MarkTwainisoneofthemostfamouswriters–heisnotedforhishumour,and“TheAdventuresofHuckleberryFinn〞ishismasterpiece.Inpoetry,T.S.EliotisprobablythemostimportantAmericanpoetofthe20thcentury.Hismostfamousworkis“TheWasteLand〞.ManypeopleregardJohnAshberytobeAmerica’smostimportantlivingpoet.Duringthelongperiodofcolonization,agreatdealofliteraturewascomposed,someofitaveryhighorder.ButitwasnotinanysenseAmericanliterature.ItdidnotariseoutofanimaginativeresponsetoAmericaforAmerica,theUSAasweknowit,hadnotyetcomeintobeing.Themostimportantphaseofpre-nationalliteratureconsistsinthewritingsthePuritans.Inthisperiod,writerslikeWilliamBradfordandJohnWinthropaddressthemselvestoquestionsofhistory.Attheendofthe18thcentury,writerslikeJonathanEdwardsandBenjaminFranklinareusuallyconsideredtoberepresentativesoftheAmericanEnlightenment.TheysharedmanyoftheintellectualcommitmentsofwhatwenowcallTheAgeofReason.EnglishsettlershadbeeninAmericaalmostacenturybeforethenovel.TwofactorsinAmericanlifeworkedagainsttheacceptanceoffiction:

Thehard,practicaldemandontheenergyinthenewcountryBecausethePuritansthoughtthatarttells“l(fā)ies〞----givingimitationsofthings,notreality,andalsothatitstimulatesunhealthyemotionalism,particularlysexualemotionswhichthePuritansespeciallyabhorred.Sothedevelopmentofthenovelisassociatedwiththeriseofthemiddleclassasitdevelopeditsidealsofdemocracyandequality,industrialization,westwardexpansion,andtookonavarietyofforeigninfluencessuchaswritersSirWalterScott,SamuelRichardsonandsoon.TheRomanticPeriodcoversthefirsthalfofthe19thcentury.

Inthisperiod,imaginativewritingandtheAmericannovelandshortstorybeginthroughwritingbyWashingtonIrvingandJamesFenimoreCooper.BothofthembeganworkingfromEnglishmodelstowardanAmericansensibility.TheRomanticPeriodAsthefirstimportantwriterinAmericanliterature,WashingtonIrvingremainsatransitionalwriterinthatheinspiredtheAmericanRomanticimaginationwithtwoofhismostfamousstories,“RipVanWinkle〞and“TheLegendofSleepyHollow〞.CooperisthefirstAmericannovelistwhosetthepatternofaquitedifferentsortofindividualism.InhisLeatherstockingTales,CoopercreatedHawkeye,thefirstandmostenduringtypeofmythicalAmericanhero.AmericanRomanticismculminatedaroundthe1840sinwhathascometobeknownas“NewEnglandTranscendentalism〞orthe“AmericanRenaissance〞(1836-1855).

AmericanRomanticismOneofthemajorliteraryfiguresinthisperiodwasRalphWaldoEmerson(1803-1882),theleadingNewEnglandTranscendentalist,whoseNature(1836)hasbeencalled“theManifestoofAmericanTranscendentalism,〞andwhose“TheAmericanScholar〞(1837)hasbeenrightlyregardedasAmerica’s“DeclarationofIntellectualIndependence.〞

HenryDavidThoreau(1817-1862)wasatfirstafaithfulfollowerofEmerson,butalienatedhimselfsomewhatlateron.ThoreaubuiltandwenttoliveinasmallcottageonWaldenPondforalittleovertwoyearsandthencamebacktowriteabouthisexperiencethereinhisfamousbook,Walden.AnotherofEmerson’scontemporaries,WaltWhitman(1819-1892),triedtowritepoetrydescribingtheworkingman’sAmericanexperience.NolessindebtedtoEmersonwasEmilyDickinson(1830-1886),anotherAmericanpoet,whowroteaboutthelifeofhertimeinacompletelyoriginalway.ShapingAmericanpoetryoutofthenativeelementsoftheNewWorld,WhitmanandDickinsonwerethetwomajorAmericanpoetsofthenineteenthcentury.

NathanielHawthorne(1804-1864)didnotfeelcomfortablewithEmerson’sbuoyantsenseofoptimismaboutmanandhisnature,andkeptarespectabledistancefromEmersonandhisideas.HisTheScarletLetter(1850)andotherworksrevealablacknessofvisionofwhichEmersonwasnotcapable.

HermanMelville(1819-1891)wascriticalofEmerson’soptimisticviewoflife,asisclearlyshowninsomeportionsofhisfamouswork,MobyDick.StandingapartfromhiscontemporariesbutnolessimportantinthehistoryofAmericanliteratureisEdgarAllanPoe,whowasforalongtimeperhapsthemostcontroversialandthemostmisunderstoodofAmericanwriters.

TheCivilWar(1861-1865)broughttheRomanticPeriodtoanend.TheAgeofRealismcameintoexistence.

Itexpressesconcernforthecommonplaceandthelow,andoffersanobjectiveratherthananidealisticviewofhumannatureandhumanexperience.TheAgeofRealismMark