Chapter4Syntax

outline4.1Introduction4.2WordClasses

4.3ThePrescriptiveApproach

4.4TheDescriptiveApproach

4.4.1Structuralanalysis

4.4.2Immediateconstituentanalysis4.5ConstituentStructureGrammar

4.6TransformationalGrammar

4.7SystemicFunctionalGrammar

4.1Introduction

Syntax:studyoftheinternalstructuresofsentenceandtherulesforthecombinationofwords.DifferencebetweenmorphologyandsyntaxMorphology:theinternalstructureofwords

Syntax:thecombinationofwords

Syntacticrules(1)a.Thehunterfearsthecriesoftheblackbirds.b.Theblackbirdsfearthecriesofthehunter.(2)a.Jacklookeduptheword.b.Jacklookedthewordup.(3)*Criesfearthetheofhunterblackbirdsthe.Conclusion:Thestructureofsentencesuchaswordordercanchangethemeaning.Everysentenceisasequenceofwordsbutnoteverysequenceofwordsisasentence.Sentenceformationhasrules,sothatwehavewell/illformedor(un)grammaticalsentences.4.2WordClasses

Nounsarewordsusedtorefertopeople,objects,creatures,places,events,qualities,phenomenaandabstractideasasiftheywereallthings.cats,dogs,war,wedding,courage,beauty,rain,love,hatredAdjectivesarewordsthatdescribethething,quality,stateoractionwhichanounrefersto.beautiful,redVerbsarewordsusedtorefertovariousactionsandstatesinvolvingthe“things”inevents.run,walk,seemAdverbsarewordsthatdescribeoraddtothemeaningofaverb,anadjective,anotheradverb,orasentence,andwhichanswersthequestionsintroducedbyhow,where,when,etc.carefully,slowly,then,nowPrepositionsarewordsusedwithnounsinphrasesprovidinginformationabouttime,placeandotherconnectionsinvolvingactionsandthings.Pronounsarewordswhichmayreplacenounsornounphrases.Conjunctionsarewordsusedtoconnectandindicaterelationshipsbetweeneventsandthings.Articles,Exclamations,NumeralsThedefinitionsaboveareusefulforidentifyingmostforms,buttheyarenevercompletelyaccurate.Adifferentapproachmightfocusonsomeotherpropertiesofthewordclasses.Forexample,anouncanbedefinedasaformthatcomesafteranarticle(a,anandthe)andcantakeinflectionsforpossessive(-’s)andplural(-s).Ofcourse,notallnouns(eg.informationandmud)haveallthesecharacteristics.

PhrasestructurerulesRepresentation(通過詞性表征句法):ThehunterfearsthecriesoftheblackbirdsArt+N+V+Art+N+Prep+Art+NTheruleswhichgovernthestructureofphrasesareknownasphrasestructurerulesorrewriterules.Suchrulesallowforthegenerationofgrammaticalsentencesinalanguage.4.3ThePrescriptiveApproach

Definition:Anapproachtakenbysomegrammarians,mainlyineighteenth-centuryEngland,wholaydownrulesforthecorrector“proper”useofEnglishbyfollowingLatin.(a)Youmustnotsplitinfinitives.(b)Youmustnotendasentencewithapreposition.Toboldlygo.→Togoboldly.Prepositionisnotawordyoucanendasentencewith.(funny)4.4TheDescriptiveApproach

Definition:Anapproachtakenthroughoutthe20thcenturywhichattemptstodescribetheregularstructuresofthelanguageasitisusedbycollectingsamples.Varioustechniquesmaybeemployed.4.4.1Structuralanalysis

Adescriptiveapproachstudyingthedistributionoflinguisticformsinalanguagebymeansoftestframes,whichcanbesentenceswithemptyslotsinthem.（分布、測試框架、替代、縱聚合關(guān)系）(4)The_____makesalotofnoise.(nouns:car,radio,child,dog)(5)Ihearda_____yesterday.(nouns:car,radio,child,dog)(6)_____makesalotofnoise.(nounphrases:it,thecar,adog,Peter,anewcar,thescholarwithanAmericanaccent)(7)Ihear_____yesterday.(nounphrases:it,thecar,adog,Peter,anewcar,thescholarwithanAmericanaccent)4.4.2Immediateconstituentanalysis

(Bloomfield:直接成分分析法)

Languageislinearandhierarchical.Wecananalyzelanguagefromitslargestleveltothesmallestlevel,thatisfromitsconstructiontoitsconstituentsbymeansofsubstitutabilityandexpansion.Thefirstdivisionsorcutsofaconstructionarecalledimmediateconstituentsandthefinalcutsastheultimateconstituents.Thefirstdivisionsorcutsofaconstructionarecalledimmediateconstituentsandthefinalcutsastheultimateconstituents.Theapproachtodividethesentenceupintoitsimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttinguntilobtainingitsultimateconstituentsiscalledimmediateconstituentanalysis(IC).Immediateconstituentanalysis(ICanalysis)

hastwowaysofrepresentation:TreediagrambracketsTreediagram

(8)Themanboughtacar.

BracketsBracketscanalsobeusedbutarearguablylesseasytoread.(9)a.[themanboughtacar]b.[[theman][boughtacar]]c.[[[the][man]][[bought][acar]]]d.[[[the][man]][[bought][[a][car]]]]Merit:SolvingDisambiguityoldmenandwomen

4.5ConstituentStructureGrammar

(成分結(jié)構(gòu)語法)Agrammarwhichanalyzessentencesusingonlytheideaofconstituency,whichrevealsahierarchyofstructurallevels.Themainprincipleislabelingandbracketingbasedontheideathatlinguisticunitscanbepartsoflargerconstructionsorcanthemselvesbemadeupofsmallerparts.(binaryandverb-centered)

Treediagram

BinaryVerb-centeredGenerativeRules(早期轉(zhuǎn)換語法的概念—短語結(jié)構(gòu)語法)

Thesyntaxofalanguageisthenseenasasetofruleswhichgeneratesentencesinthatlanguage.S→NP＋VPVP→Vtr.＋NPNP→Art＋NVtr.→buy,sell,build,repair,wash,etc.N→man,woman,car,house,bicycle,etc.Art→a,an,the

(12)a.Themanboughtacar.b.Themansoldacar.c.Thewomanrepairedthebicycle.Sentencesgenerated：MorecomplexrulesThereisalargenumberofsentencesinEnglishthatsuchrulescannotproduce.Thissetofruleshasverylimitedgenerativepower.Theaboverulesonlydealwithsimplenounphrasesandtransitiveverbs.Theydonotallowustodealwithanypartoftheverbstructuresuchastense,modalsoraspect.Sentencesgenerated：(13)a.Themansellsthecarinthegarage.b.Thewomanwashesthebicycleinthestreet.c.Theboyrepairsthebicycleinthehouse.Merit:SolvingDisambiguity(14)Theboyrepairsthebicycleinthehouse.

inthehousearoundthecorner(Recursion,Recursiveness遞歸性)MaryhelpedGeorge.CathythoughtMaryhelpedGeorge.JohnsaidCathythoughtMaryhelpedGeorge.Achildren’srhyme:ThisisthehousethatJackbuilt.ThisisthecatthatlivedinthehousethatJackbuilt.ThisisthedogthatchasedthecatthatlivedinthehousethatJackbuilt.ThisisthemanthatkeepsthedogthatchasedthecatthatlivedinthehousethatJackbuilt.ThisisthewomanthatmarriedthemanthatkeepsthedogthatchasedthecatthatlivedinthehousethatJackbuilt.SomeproblemsofCSG:A.LexicalselectionrestrictionWithsimpleconstituentstructurerules,anynouncanbeintroducedinacombinationwithanyverb.Thisdoesnothappeninnaturallanguage.Wecannotsay:(15)*Thebeliefwashedanapple.B.Discontinuousness(16)Theboycleanedtheroomup.(17)Thestudentlookedthewordupinthedictionary.C.Relationbetweensentencesthatseemtobecloselyrelatedstructurallyandsemantically(18)a.BrianhitGeorge→b.GeorgewashitbyBrian.

NoamChomsky,(1928--)，founderofTransformationalGrammar4.6TransformationalGrammarGrammar:thereinTransformationalGrammar,

isinthebroadestway,atheoryofgrammarincludingphonologyandsemantics.AlinguistictheoryWeshallonlyfocusonthesyntacticaspectoftransformationalgrammar.I.Classicaltheory

Threeparts:phrasestructurerulestransformationalrules,morphophonemicrules.S→NP+VP;simpleactivedeclarativekernelsentences

(短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則建立在成分結(jié)構(gòu)分析法的基礎(chǔ)之上，但是更加形式化；強(qiáng)調(diào)自上而下的生成。)Atransformationruleisasequenceofsymbolswhichcouldberewrittenconventionallyasdifferentsequence.

passivetransformationNP1＋Aux＋V＋NP2→NP2＋Aux＋be＋en＋V＋by＋NP1(19)a.Theboyhasrepairedthebicycle.b.Thebicyclehasbeenrepairedbytheboy.Themorphophonemicruleswouldapplytotheoutputofthetransformationalrules.Theirfunctionistoprovidethecorrectmorphologicalshapetothevariouspartsofthestructureandfinallytogivetheappropriatephonologicaldescription.

(公式----言語表達(dá))

Treediagram

II.Standardtheorycompetenceandperformance(Chapter1)deepstructureandsurfacestructureThedeepstructureofasentenceisitsmostbasicstructurebothsemanticallyandsyntactically.Thesurfacestructureistheformthatpeoplecanactuallysay.Itisfairlyarbitrary.Twosuperficiallysimilarstructuresmayconveyasubstantiallydifferentmessage.deepstructureandsurfacestructureConsiderthefollowingpairofsentences:(20)a.Johniseasytoplease.b.Johniseagertoplease.InthefirstsentenceJohnisdoingthepleasing,andinthelatterheisonthereceivingend.Structurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.

StandardtheoryDifferentstagesofgenerativegrammarIII.ExtendedStandardTheoryIV.RevisedExtendedStandardTheoryV.GovernmentandBindingTheory(GB)[PrinciplesandParametersApproach(P&P)]VI.MinimalistProgram(MP)OtherbranchesofGG:Throughoutthedevelopmentoftransformationalgrammar,Chomskyhasmaintainedthecentralityofsyntax.Thesyntacticcomponentoftransformationalgrammaristhegenerativecore.Othercomponentsareinterpretiveanddependentonthebasicanddeepsyntacticstructure.Noteveryoneagreedwithhimonthispoint.Generativesemantics:givesemanticsthecentralgenerativerole.Casegrammar:seesyntaxascentralbutprefertoworkwith“case”structuresanddependencyrelations.4.7SystemicFunctionalGrammar(SFG)

Linguistswhoadoptthisviewareinterestedinrelatingthevariouskindsofstructuresandpatternsthatlanguageshowstothefunctionsthatlanguagefulfillsandtothesocialsettingsinwhichitisused.DifferencefromTG:functionandcontextual,purposefulHalliday’sthreemeta-functions:ideational,interpersonal,textualM.A.KHallidayIdeational

概念功能Ideational:thefunctioninwhichweconceptualizetheworldasarepresentationofexperience.（及物性（動詞）、語態(tài)、）(19)Theboykickedthepost.(Thepostwaskickedbytheboy)(20)Themanlikedthenewhouse.(21)Thechildishomeless.(22)Thegirllaughed.(23)Thevisitorsaid“hello”.(24)Thereisagirloverthere.TransitivityProcessSubcategoryNuclearparticipantsExampleMaterial物質(zhì)過程Event(i.e.happening)Action(i.e.doing)Actor(動作者),過程(Process),Goal(目標(biāo)),(beneficiary/recipient,range/circumstance)Shebuiltthehouse(forthekids)Sheclimbed(themountain)Mental心理過程PerceptionCognitionAffectionSenser(感知者),過程(Process),Phenomenon(現(xiàn)象)ShesawthecarSheforgothisnameShelikedhismusicRelational關(guān)系過程Attributive(歸屬)Identifying(識別)Carrier(載體),Attribute(屬性);Token(標(biāo)記),Value(價值)MaggiewasourleaderMaggiewasstrongBehavioural行為過程Behaver(行為者)ShelaughedVerbal言語Sayer(講話者)SherepliedExistential存在過程Existent(存在物)TherewasabeautifulprincessInterpersonal

人際功能Interpersonal:setupandmaintainsocialandpersonalrelations,includingcommunicationrolessuchasquestionerandrespondent,andexpressthelanguageuser’sownattitudesandcommentsonthecontentofanutterance.（語氣（句型）、情態(tài)、語調(diào)）Traditionallydeclarative,interrogativeandimperativeDeclarative:giveinformationandperformthefunctionofstatementInterrogative:requestsomethingandperformthefunctionofquestion

Imperative:giveinstructionsandperformthefunctionofcommandsHowever,exactcorrelationbetweenformandfunctiononlyoccursinidealizedsentences.Wecanusedeclarativetoaskquestions,andtoissueinstructions.Mood（語氣）Demandfor,andofferof,goodsorservicesDemandfor,andofferof,linguisticinformation(27)a.Passthesalt.b.Pleasepassthesalt.c.Canyoupassthesalt?d.Couldyoupossiblypassthesalt?e.Youcouldn’tpossiblypassthesalt,couldyou?Politenessincreases：Themoreindirectthedemand,themorepoliteitisfelttobe.Textual

語篇功能Textual:enablethespeakerorwritertoconstructatext,andthelistenerorreadertodistinguishatextfromarandomsetofsentences.（主位關(guān)系、信息結(jié)構(gòu)（標(biāo)記理論）、銜接）Wehavetodecidehowtoorderthepartsofthemessagesoas(a)tomakeitcleartoouraudience,and(b)toemphasize,ormakeprominent,theessentialelementsofit.Informationstructure信息結(jié)構(gòu)

given(old,known)+new(unknown)markedvsunmarked(28)a.Thereisabirdonthetree.(unmarked)b.Abirdisonthetree.(marked)(29)a.JamesenjoystennismorethanJohn.(lesscumbersome)b.JamesenjoystennismorethanJohnenjoystennis.thematicrelation

主位關(guān)系Theme主位:thefirstconstituent,thestartingpointoftheclause----whatitisgoingtobeabout.Rheme述位:therestoftheclause(30)a.Gasexplosionkilledthousands.b.Thousandswerekilledbygasexplosion.(31)a.Theraincamedown.(unmarked)b.Downcametherain.(marked)ThebookisonatableThematicthemerhemeInformationoldnewFunctionalapproachesconcentratingontextualaspectsfeaturequitehighlyindiscourseanalysisandwewillbereturningtotheminChapter7.Summary4.1Definition4.2WordClasses(ten:5+5)

4.3ThePrescriptiveApproach

4.4TheDescriptiveApproach

4.4.1StructuralAnalysis(withslots)

4.4.2Immediateconstituentanalysis(tree)4.5ConstituentStructureGrammar(tree,rules,merits,features,problems)

4.6TransformationalGrammar(grammar,classic,standard,stages,otherbranches)

4.7SystemicFunctionalGrammar

(ideational,interpersonal,textual)Exercise1.Definethefollowingterms.syntax,wordclass,prescriptiveapproach,descriptiveapproach,ICanalysis,ultimateconstituent,transformationalgrammar,ideationalfunction,interpersonalfunction,textualfunction2.Drawtwotreediagramsforthefollowingsentencetoshowthedifferentrelationshipofinthecar.Thedogbitthemaninthecar.Questionsforchapterthree

andchapterfour1.HowmanytypesofmorphemesarethereintheEnglishlanguage?Statewhattheyareandillustratehowtheywork.2.Giveexamplestotellthedifferencebetweenderivationandcompounding.3.Giveexamplestoillustratethedistinctionbetweendeepstructureandsurfacestructure.Questionsforchapterthree

andchapterfour1.Howmanytypesofmorphemesareth