1、,ARGUMENTATION,Introduction of,CONTENTS目錄,1. Definition,2. Principles and Conventions,3. Argument structures,4. Strategy,6. An example,5. Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument,A debatable point,Chinese doctors use acupuncture anesthesia to perform certain operations. Acupuncture anesthes

2、ia should replace conventional anesthesia in all operations.,A debatable point,Lady Gaga is my favorite star. Lady Gaga is the most popular star of the 21th century.,A debatable point,Noise pollution is harmful to peoples health. Noise pollution is the most harmful of all environmental pollution.,Ar

3、gumentation is analyzed, review of a problem or something, that a style of their own point of view, position, attitude, views and propositions.,Examples of argumentation writing are:,2. Principles and Conventions,A good argumentation should abide by the following conventions:,Follow the rules of rea

4、son,Three kinds of evidence:objective data,social consensus,personal credibility and experience,Evidence must be presented logically,Three types of appeals:ethos(喻德）,logos（喻理）,pathos（喻情）,1,4,A well-defined,controversial issue,A clear position taken by the writer,A convincing argument,2,3,A reasonabl

5、e tone,A good argumentation should include:,CONTENTS目錄,1. Definition,2. Principles and Conventions,3. Argument structures,4. Strategy,6. An example,5. Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument,Convergent argument,Argument structures,1. Simple argument,Claim,Support,inference,A simple argumen

6、t only contains a claim,a support and a inference,as shown in the following:,SUPER NANNIES,To keep up with the times,Norland College in England,trainning nannies,has added two new classes to its curriculum:martial arts and stunt driving(特技駕駛).Why? Because the children of the rich and famous are ofte

7、n targeted by the paparazzi(狗仔隊) ,and could potentially become victims of kidnapping （綁架）attempts. So,Noland thinks its naannies need to know how to handle these high-risk situations.,Claim,Support/Claim,Support,inference,inference,A chain argument contains more than one layers of argument.The suppo

8、rt of the first layer becomes the claim of the second layer,which needs further support,as shown in the following:,relay race 接力比賽,2. Chain argument,小伙伴，此處有視頻哦！,3. Compound argument,A compound argument contains more than one support for the same claim,as shown in the following:,Claim,Support,inferen

9、ce,inference,inference,Support,Support,CELEBRITIES WHO FELL FROM GRACE 那些自毀前途的明星,“The higher you go,the harder you fall”is a common English expression.It means the more successful you become,the more you have to lose.And its an experience shared by many celebrities who have ruined their careers by d

10、oing something stupid or illegal.Here are some famous people who have fallen from grace.,Tiger Woods In 2009,Tiger Woods was the best golfer in the worldBut then he had an affair.In December2009,the tabloids（小報） revealed that Woods had cheated on his wife with more than 12 women,Lindsay Lohan Betwee

11、n 2003 and 2005,Lindsay Lohan starred in a string of highly successful films and became known as the teen move queenUnfortunately,in 2006,Lindsay started drinking and doing drugs;and since 2007,shes been arrested over twenty times.,Phil Spector is currently in prison for murder.,Lance Armstrong use

12、performance enhancing drugs.,Should Smoking Be Banned? It has become fashionable in the world today to condemn smoking. However, although I feel that smoking can be harmful, I do not think it should be banned. First, smoking undoubtedly helps many people to relax. For some, it . A further point is t

13、hat governments throughout the world make huge profits from levying taxes on cigarettes. This provides funds . I would also argue that people should have the right to choose whether they smoke or not. People should not smoke .,兄弟，來一根呀！,Support,Support,Support,Claim,4. Convergent argument,Claim,Suppo

14、rt,inference,Support,A convergent argument requires two supports to work together for a claim. In other words,only one support cannot stand well without the other,as shown in the following.,rather than it tells you a structure,it teaches you a way to think：well-knit（嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)）,1、its so cold outside,lets ha

15、ve hot pot for dinner ok?,3、because it s better to eat spicy food in cold weather！,4、ok,lets go!,最后，他們在一起了！,2、why do we have to eat hot pot ?,The weather is so cold today.,we should eat hot pot for dinner today.,Its best to eat spicy food in cold weather.,熱火鍋結(jié)構(gòu),5. Complex argument,Claim,Support,Supp

16、ort/Claim,Support,Support,Support,Support,A complex argument combines all the above structures and usually appears to be the final outline of an argumentation,an shown in the following:,Sherlock ： Watson is his flatmate,Watson need to get a flatshare.,Just after lunch ,Mike and Watson come.,Watson g

17、ot shot,Watson cant afford London on an Army pension.,Sherlock told Mike that he is a difficult man to find a flatmate.,小伙伴，此處有視頻哦！,Convergent argument,Argument structures,CONTENTS目錄,1. Definition,2. Principles and Conventions,3. Argument structures,4. Strategy,6. An example,5. Common logical fallac

18、ies and weakness in argument,Strategies,1. Reasoning,2. Example,3. Raising figures,4. Contrast and comparison,5. Making concessions,6. Quotation,7. Analogy,.,1. Reasoning,Reasoning is to organise the causes and effects in a logical way. inductive reasoning（歸納法） reasoning from detailed facts to gener

19、al princiles(or from effect to cause) deductive reasoning(演繹法) reasoning from the general to the particular (or from cause to effect),常用關(guān)聯(lián)詞,therefore, as a result, consequently, fortunately, surprisingly.,常用句式,As ，since，because Due to，owing to， Because of ，thanks to The reason why is that be related

20、 to be associated with contribute to,“Facts speak louder than words.” - Abraham Lincoln Sometimes a specific example is more useful in supporting your claim.,2. Example,常用關(guān)聯(lián)詞,as an illustration, for example, in particular, specifically, to illustrate, to demonstrate.,常用句式,A good case in point is tha

21、t A typical example can be found in ,Claim: opinions on the safety of genetically modified food are drasticly varied.,支持：便宜、安全又環(huán)保，為什么不選擇它呢？ 反對：又沒有足夠的實驗證明轉(zhuǎn)基因食品絕對安全，所以應(yīng)該謹(jǐn)慎對待！,“Let the data speak for themselves.” Statistic data from an authentic research paper could be a very powerful support of your c

22、laim.,3. Raising figures,Ways to present figures:,table (表格) line graph（折線圖） bar chart（柱狀圖） pie chart（餅狀圖） process diagram（流程圖）,Claim: is very papular,expecially among young women.,4. Contrast and comparison,claim: It is more expensive to live in China than in America.,e.g.Assume that you earn 8000/

23、month in China and your. American counterpart Peter earns 8000$/month in America.,for you : 60 years for Peter:6 years,for you : 10 years for Peter:0.5 years,20 4 $,常用關(guān)聯(lián)詞,Likewise, similarly In contrast, on the contrary, while, whereas.,5. Making concessions,It is a indirect way to express your disa

24、greement with an opinion. It helps to make your refutation much softer so that you dont offend others and thus makes your opinion more acceptable.,常見表達(dá),Although though As is granted In spite of the fact that Opponents would argue that ,小伙伴，此處有視頻哦！,6. Quotation,A quotation is a phrase from a book,res

25、earch, play,etc,that sb repeats because it is interesting or useful.Using quotation in your argumentation makes it more objective and unbiased,thus your claim may seem more credible and authoritive.,In the middle of difficulty lies opportunity. -Albert Einstein,常用句式,Just as sb puts it. According to

26、a recent study. A recent opinion poll revealed that ,A cat is a good cat only if it can catch a mouse. -Xiaoping Deng,A soldier who doesnt want to be a general is not a soldier. -Napolon Bonaparte,7. Analogy,Analogy is an inference that if things agree in some respects they probably agree in others.

27、,e.g.water is to fish what air is to humans.I love you,just like mice like rice.,常用句式,A is to B what C is to D. Just like.,CONTENTS目錄,1. Definition,2. Principles and Conventions,3. Argument structures,4. Strategy,6. An example,5. Common logical fallacies and weakness in argument,1. Absolute statemen

28、ts,Although it is important to convince readers by making a strong impression, avoid making absolute claims that can be dismissed with a single exception.,example,We cant communicate with people from other country without learning English.,要不咱說中文？,成啊。,小伙伴，此處有視頻哦！,Money is everything.,The heart made

29、by money is empty.,example,男人沒一個好東西,No one can deny the fact that There is no doubt that Everyone/ everything/ nothing.,2. False dilemma,Avoid overdramatizing your case by offering readers only two alternatives. Most readers will immediately recognize the weakness of such an unrealistic argument.,ex

30、ample,Its necessary to or we will America-love it or leave it!,love,hate,老媽,女盆友,3. Basing arguments on personalities,Dont presume that readers will be impressed by citing endorsements by famous people. The fact that a celebrity or single experts supports your argument is not convincing evidence. Don

31、t attack the personality of opposing authorities or reject an idea because someone controversial supports it. National health care, for example, were tenets of both Nazism and Communism.,example,Kathie Lee Gifford, a popular TV celebrity, says that cruises are wonderful, so they must be.,我是權(quán)威我怕誰！,Na

32、tional health care, for example, were tenets of both Nazism and Communism.,4. False analogy,Comparisons form weak arguments. Although they may be useful to illustrate an idea, they rarely provide convincing evidence. The fact that an educational policy works in Japan does not mean it will work in th

33、e United States.,example,The fact that a policy works in the past doesnt means it still works in today. Birth control policy is essential to our social and economic system.,5. Hasty generalizations,Make sure that any conclusions are based on sufficient evidence and not coincidence or simple circumst

34、ance.,example,French people are more romantic Asian students are better in math.,6. Begging the questions,Avoid assuming elements that must be proven. You cannot argue, “the outmoded computer systems must be replaced,” until you prove that the system is indeed outdated.,example,The weakest countries

35、 have no real international status.,這話誰說的？,Absolute statements,Basing arguments on personalities,Hasty generalizations,False dilemma,False analogy,Begging the questions,Logical fallacies,I strongly recommend that people should I agree to the point to some extent. I would like to believe thatshould be Formypart/Astome/AsfarasIamconcerned,Idliketoagreetotheformerpointofview./Myfavorgoestothef