1、,Chapter 7: 1) sociolinguistics社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué): an interdisciplinary study of language use, attempts to show the relationships between language and society.(structural things and their uses in a sociocultural context) 2) the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis薩丕爾-沃爾夫假設(shè): Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, co

2、nsequently, different languages may probably express speakersunique ways of understanding the world. 3) linguistic determinism語(yǔ)言決定論: L may determine our thinking patterns 4) linguistic relativity語(yǔ)言相對(duì)主義: Similarity between language is relative; the greater their structural differentiation is, the div

3、erse their conceptualization of the world will be. 5) the context of situation語(yǔ)境學(xué)說(shuō): Firth tried to set up a model for illustrating the close relationship between language use and the context of situation which contains the following components: 1. The relevant features of the participants: persons,

4、personalities a. The verbal action of the participants b. The non-verbal action of the participants 2. The relevant objects 3. The effects of the verbal action 6) communicative competence交際能力: It developed from linguistic competence. And it is the theory of Hyme. It contributes to the language teach

5、ing, as the name suggests that the teacher should train their students as the language user in the real language context.,7) woman register女性語(yǔ)言：The linguistic behavior of females.According to Lakoff, there exists a woman register in language Women use more fancy color terms such as mauve (淡紫色) and b

6、eige（米色）. Women use less powerful curse words. Women use more intensifiers such as terrible and awful. Women use more tag questions: Hes right, isnt he? Women use more statement (declarative) questions: Hes right? Womens linguistic behavior is more indirect and, hence, more polite than men: Could yo

7、u lower your voice a little? 8) linguistic sexism語(yǔ)言性別歧視: a term used to refer to sex-biased phenomena in language use. More specifically, it aims to reveal and deal with linguistic issues related to male chauvinism. 9) cross-cultural communication跨文化交際：Cross-cultural communicationis a field of study

8、 that looks at how people from differingculturalbackgrounds communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves, and how they endeavor to communicateacross cultures. Chapter 8: 1) the speech act theory言語(yǔ)行為論: This is the first major theory in the study of language in use. It originated with t

9、he Oxford philosopher Austin and presented in How to Do Things with Words. Speech act means actions performed via utterances 2) performatives施為句: Performatives do not describe things. They can not be said to be true or false. Uttering them is, or is a part of, doing an action, e.g. name this ship Qu

10、een Elizabeth.,3) constatives敘事句: Constatives is a description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking, capable of being analyzed in terms of truth-values, utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe what something is. E.g. I pour some

11、 liquid into the tube. 4) locutionary act發(fā)話行為/表述性言語(yǔ)行為: The act of producing speech sounds, words or sentences. Thats, when we speak, we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in certain ways and with a certain meaning. 5) illocutionary act行事行為: the act of making known the sp

12、eakers purpose or the intended meaning. When we speak, we not only produce some units of language with ceratin meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood, or they aslo hace certain forces. 6) perlocutionary act取效行為/言后行為: means the consequenti

13、al effect of a locution upon the hearer. By saying something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer, misleading him, surprising him, or inducing him to do something.whether or not these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act that the speaker has perfor

14、med 7) the cooperative principle合作原則: According to Grice, in daily conversations, people are cooperative. They often recognize a common purpose or a set of purposes or at least a mutually agreed direction for the conversation to develop. That is, they follow a cooperative principle or CP for short.,

15、8) maxim of quantity數(shù)量： (1) make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange) (2) do not make your contribution more informative than is required. 9) maxim of quality質(zhì)量：try to make your contribution one that is true (1) do not say what you believe to be f

16、alse. (2) do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. 10) maxim of relation關(guān)系：Be relevant (what you say) 11) maxim of manner方式：Be perspicuous. (1) Avoid obscurity of expression. (2) Avoid ambiguity. (3) Be brief. And be orderly(avoid prolixity). (4) be orderly 12) calculability可推導(dǎo)性：Cross-c

17、ultural communicationis a field of study that looks at how people from differingculturalbackgrounds communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves, and how they endeavor to communicateacross cultures. 13) cancellability可取消性：Also known as defeasibility. A conversational implicature relie

18、s on a number of factors as discussed in the part for calculability. If any of them changes, the implicature will also change.,14) non-detachability不可分離性：A conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. Therefore it is possible to use a sy

19、nonym and keep the implicature intact. 15) non-conventionality非常規(guī)性：implicature is different from its conventional meaning of words. It is context-dependent. It varies with context. Conversational implicature is by definition different from the conventional meaning of words. 16) contextual meaning語(yǔ)境意

20、義：The meaning of the sentence depends on who the speaker is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used. 17) pragmatics語(yǔ)用學(xué)：The study of language in use. The study of meaning in context. The study of speakers meaning, utterance meaning it focuses on the study of the linguistic features related to l

21、iterary style. 2) foregrounding前景化：it is defined as “artistically motivated deviation” 以藝術(shù)手法為動(dòng)機(jī)的偏離In a purely linguistic sense, the term foregrounding is used to refer to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form the background against which the new elements are to be under

22、stood by the listener / reader.,3) simile明喻：It is a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing. And it explicitly signals in a text, with the words as or like. 4) metaphor暗喻：It always makes a comparison between two unli

23、ke things, this comparison is implied rather than stated. 5) metonymy轉(zhuǎn)喻：A figure of speech, in which a thing or concept is not called by its own name, but by the name of something intimately associated with that thing or concept. for example, “crown” represents “king”. 6) synecdoche提喻：The name of a

24、part of an object is used to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa. 7) rhyme押韻: Syllables sharing the vowel and the final consonant (cVC) 8) alliteration頭韻：The initial consonants are identical(Cvc) 9) assonance元音韻/準(zhǔn)押韻：Describes syllables with a common vowel (cVc) 10) consonance輔音韻：Syllables end

25、ing with the same consonants (cvC) 11) reverse rhyme反韻：Describes syllables sharing the vowel and initial consonant(CVc) 12) pararhyme押副韻: two syllables have the same initial and final consonants, but different vowels (CvC) 13) repetition反復(fù)：the repetition of the same word, it is also a kind of deviat

26、ion as it violates the normal rule of usage by over frequency. (CVC) 14) metre格：when stress is organized to form regular rhythms, the word for it is metre.,15) iamb抑揚(yáng)格：an iambic foot contains two syllables, an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one.一個(gè)抑揚(yáng)格音步包括兩個(gè)音節(jié)，即一個(gè)非重讀音節(jié)后面跟一個(gè)重讀音節(jié) 16) trochee

27、揚(yáng)抑格：a trochaic foot contains two syllables as well, but in this case, the stressed syllable comes first, followed by an unstressed syllable.一個(gè)揚(yáng)抑格音步也包括兩個(gè)音節(jié)，但這種情況是重讀音節(jié)在前，非重讀音節(jié)隨后 17) anapest抑抑揚(yáng)格：an anapestic foot consists of three syllables; two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed one.一個(gè)抑抑揚(yáng)

28、格包括三個(gè)音節(jié)，即兩個(gè)非重讀音節(jié)后面跟一個(gè)重讀音節(jié) 18) dactyl 揚(yáng)抑抑格：a stressed syllable is followed by two unstressed ones.一個(gè)重讀音節(jié)在前，后跟有兩個(gè)非重讀音節(jié) 19) spondee 揚(yáng)揚(yáng)格：a spondaic foot consists of two stressed syllables.一個(gè)揚(yáng)揚(yáng)格包括兩個(gè)重讀音節(jié) 20) couplet 對(duì)句：A couplet is a pair of lines of verse. It usually consists of two lines that rhyme and

29、have the same meter. 對(duì)句為兩行詩(shī)句，一般由押韻聯(lián)系在一起。 21) quatrain 四行詩(shī)：Stanzas of four lines, quite common in English poetry.四行為一節(jié)的詩(shī) 22) blank verse 無(wú)韻詩(shī)：Blank verse consists of lines in iambic pentametre which do not rhyme.無(wú)韻詩(shī)是由不押韻的抑揚(yáng)格五音步詩(shī)組成的,23) narrator敘述者：the person who tells the story I-narrators第一人稱敘述者/ I敘述

30、者 1) The person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story, relating the story after the event. In this case the critics call the narrator a first-person narrator or I-narrator. Third-person narrators第三人稱敘述者 1) If the narrator is not a character in the fictional

31、world, he or she is usually called third-person narrator. 24) schemata 圖式：Schema theory suggests the knowledge we carry around in our head is organized in to interrelated patterns. 25) New information新信息: information that is presented by the speaker as not recoverable, it is new. 26) Given informati

32、on已知信息: information that is presented by the speaker as recoverable, it has already been motioned before. 27) direct speech 直接引語(yǔ): We have what the character said in its fullest form. It contends a reporting clause, a reported clause and quotation marks 28) indirect speech 間接引語(yǔ): The narrator provides

33、 the reporting clause and contributes to the formation of the reported clause. 29) free direct speech 自由直接引語(yǔ)：a reported clause without either the reporting clause or the quotation marks or both: “Am I too late?” 30) free indirect speech 自由間接引語(yǔ)：An amalgam of DS and IS features. More of the narrators

34、contribution, it is closer to the original words form of the question. Was she too late? She asked. 31) narrators representation of speech acts 敘述者對(duì)言語(yǔ)行為的表達(dá) A summary of a piece of discourse, the purpose of the speech is remained, it is the functional interpretation of original words. She asked him a

35、 question.,32) narrators representation of speech 敘述者對(duì)言語(yǔ)的表達(dá) A sentence merely tells us that speech occurs and does not even specify the speech act involved. We talked for hours. Chapter 12: 1) functional sentence perspective功能句子前景： Linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances in ter

36、ms of the information they contain.用所含信息分析話語(yǔ)或篇章 The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its dematic contribution to the whole. 原則：評(píng)價(jià)話語(yǔ)中每一個(gè)部分對(duì)全局意義的貢獻(xiàn) 2) systemic-functional grammar系統(tǒng)功能語(yǔ)法： is a model of grammar developed by Michael Halliday in the 1960s.it has two compon

37、ents:sysmetic grammar and functional grammar. They are two inseparate parts for an integral framework of linguistic theory. 3) American structuralism美國(guó)結(jié)構(gòu)主義： Is a branch of synchronic linguistics that emerged independently in the US at the beginning of the 20th C. it developed in a very different sty

38、le from that of Europe, under the leadership of the anthropologist Franz Boas. structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of distribution, and that the structure of each language should be described without reference to

39、 the alleged universality of such categories as tense, mood and parts of speech.,4) transformational-generative grammar 轉(zhuǎn)換生成語(yǔ)法TG(A.N. Chomsky) agenerative grammar, especially of anatural language, that has been developed in theChomskyan traditionofphrase structure grammars(as opposed todependency gr

40、ammars). Additionally, transformational grammar is the tradition that gives rise to specific transformational grammars. 5) the innateness hypothesis 天賦假設(shè) Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a language acquisition device, which is a unique

41、kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning. First, children learn their native language very fast and with little effort. Second, children learn their mother tongue in very different environments, but in their first language acquisition, their difference is amazingly small. Third, the ch

42、ild learns the total grammar of the language during a limited period of time, from limited exposure to speech. 3 elements of LAD: a hypothesis-maker, linguistic universal, evaluation procedure. 6) theme 主位：The point of departure, the ground on which the speaker and hearer understand each other 7) rh

43、eme 述位：Goal of discourse, information that is to be imparted to the hearer 8) ideational function概念功能 (experiential, logical) It is to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer. It is a meaning potential because whatever specific use one is making of language he

44、has to refer to categories of his experience of the world. Mainly consists of “transitivity” and “voice”,9) interpersonal function人際功能：It embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations. This includes the various ways the speaker enters a speech situation and performs a speech

45、 act. It is realized by Mood and Modality. 10) textual function 語(yǔ)篇功能：Refers to the fact that language has mechanism to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences. 11) phrase structure rules 短語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)

46、規(guī)則：Phrase-structure rules formalize some of the traditional insights of constituent structure analysis. They make up Phrase Structure Grammar. 12) transformational rules 轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則：Chomsky has distinguished transformational rules into two kinds: 1. obligatory and optional. The transformation of auxiliarie

47、s and particles are obligatory, and the transformation of negation, the passive voice etc. are optional. 13) deep structure 深層結(jié)構(gòu)：he abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction 14) surface structure 表層結(jié)構(gòu)：the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which cl

48、osely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive 15) transitivity及物性: One system of choices operating in English main clauses. Transitivity is simply the grammar of the clause in its ideational aspect.,Ethnography of communication交際民族學(xué): speech co

49、mmunity; situation,event, act; speaking componets SPEAKING: situation; participants; ends; act sequence; key; instrumentalities; norms; genres Cross culture communication(Nida): ecological culture; linguistic c; religious c; material c; social Calculability可計(jì)算性It is the first character of implicatur

50、e. Implicature is calculable in that it can be worked out on the basis of previous information, including: 1) the conventional meaning of the words, 2) the CP and its maxims, 3) the context, 4) other items of the background knowledge, 5) the fact that all relevant items falling under the previous he

51、adings are available to both participants and both participants know or assume this to be the case. (Hearers work out implicature based on literal meaning, CP and its maxims, context, etc.) sociolinguistics社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)can be further divided into sociolinguistic study of society and sociolinguistic study of

52、 language Schema-oriented language圖式語(yǔ)言Viewpoint is schema-oriented. It is worth noting that different participants in the same situation will have different schemas, related to their different viewpoints. Besides indicating viewpoint by choosing what to describe, novelists can also indicate it by ho

53、w it is described, particularly through expressions which are evaluative in nature. Saussure: “father of modern linguistic”,”a master of a discipline which he made modern” Ss ideas were developed along three lines: linguistics, sociology, psychology,The Prague School布拉格學(xué)派:synchronic liguistics共識(shí)語(yǔ)言學(xué) 1. they fully justified the synchronic study of language but erected no rigid theoretical barrier to separate diachronic study. 2. they emphasised the systemic character of a language by arguing that no ele