1、Chapter 11 Linguistics and Language Teaching111.1 The relation between linguistics and language teachingLanguage teaching is a part of applied linguistics, and applied linguistics is a part of linguistics. Some knowledge of linguistics will not only help language teachers to better understand the na

2、ture of language, but also help them better understand how to teach language.2Applied linguistics“a branch of linguistics where the primary concern is the application of linguistic theories, methods and findings to the elucidation (explanation) of language problems which has arisen in other areas of

3、 experience” (Cristal, 1991: 22) Theoretical views of language explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in language teaching.Linguistics, as the science of language, should be of fundamental importance for teachers of language.3According to Jo McDonough, a teacher who is ab

4、le to explain some linguistic features would have a stronger position than one who handles the argument by using authority “its like that”, “its an exception”, or “its less formal”.4E.g. He goed to see a film yesterday.What kind of error is it?overgeneralization511.2 Linguistics and language learnin

5、g Many language learning theories are proposed based on certain linguistic theories. In fact, knowledge in linguistics lies at the root of understanding what language learners can learn, how they actually learn and what they learn ultimately. 6As Rod Ellis points out, “whereas much of the earlier wo

6、rk focused on the linguistic and, in particular, the grammatical-properties of learner language and was psycholinguistic in orientation, later work has also attended to the pragmatic aspects of learner language and, increasingly, has adopted a sociolinguistic perspective. 7The claim that “Knowledge

7、in linguistics can serve language learning ” is still for debate.Although certain language learners (e.g., advanced learners and students majoring a foreign language) certainly benefit from a knowledge of linguistics, it is not sensible to recommend the majority of language learners to study linguis

8、tics while they are still struggling with the task of learning the language itself. 811.2.1 Grammar and language learningAs a compromise between the “purely form-focused approaches” and the “purely meaning-focused” approaches, a recent movement called focus on form seems to take a more balanced view

9、 on the role of grammar in language learning. Whether and how to include grammar in second language instruction?9Focus on FormAlthough language learning should generally be meaning-focused and communication-oriented, it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form occasionally. 10Focus on form

10、 or form-focused instruction, is an approach to language education in which learners are made aware of the grammatical form of language features that they are already able to use communicatively. It is contrasted with focus on meaning which pays no attention paid to form at all. Focus on form was pr

11、oposed by Michael Long in 1988. 11Focus-on-form often consists of an occasional shift of attention to linguistic code features (grammatical features) by the teacher and/or one or more studentstriggered by perceived problems with comprehension or production. 12Universal GrammarThe Innateness Hypothes

12、is:It argues that children are born with an innate knowledge of at least some of the universal structural principles of human language. This knowledge is embedded in a mechanism called Language Acquisition Device (LAD). 13Although UG was not originally proposed to account for second language acquisi

13、tion, many researchers are working on its implication for language learning and teaching. 14Drawbacks/ LimitationsUG is only concerned with the core grammar of language (syntax). The communication function is discarded in UG. Chomsky is concerned only with competence, there can be little likelihood

14、of SLA researchers carrying out empirical research. 15Universal Grammar (p.252)Two variables concerning the amenability of language elements to focus on form are the relevance of Universal Grammar (UG) and the complexity of language structures. According to the advocates of focus on form, if an L2 s

15、tructure is part of UG, the amenability is high; otherwise, the amenability is low. 16Universal GrammarThe amenability is high:If an L2 structure is part of UG, L2 should share some similar linguistic features with L1, hence, it appears that L2 is easier for L2 learners to learn.Chinese and English

16、Same word ordereasier to acquire some syntactic featuresThe amenability is low:Differences between Chinese and English?-Morphology-Tense and aspectChinese: “了“、“將”、“正在”English: 16 tense/aspect forms 17The study of UG has attracted considerable attention from many second language acquisition research

17、ers because knowledge of linguistic universals may help to shape L2 acquisition in a number of ways. For example, it can provide explanations for developmental sequences and language transfer. 18Language TransferTransfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the ta

18、rget and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired. (Odlin, 1989)Whether they learn the target language consciously or subconsciously, learners have come to the task of acquiring a second language with their L1 knowledge. Naturally, learners will subconsciously u

19、se their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer. 19Language TransferPositive transfer (facilitation) occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language. In this case, the learners L1 can facilitate L2 learning. Negative transfer (err

20、ors): a process more commonly known as interference, was once believed to be the major source of difficulties experienced and errors made by L2 learners on the ground that where differences existed between L1 and L2, the learners L1 knowledge would interfere with the second language. Two types of ne

21、gative transfer:Avoidance (under-production) and overuse 20Language TransferEvidence of negative transfer1) In Chinese，“盡管，但是”Although but,我明天來。I Come tomorrow.2) for instance, verbal s carries the third person in English. Bound morphemes are thus semantically complex in English, but not in Chinese.

22、 So when Chinese English speakers try to retrieve English verb forms, they may face special difficulties in working out the right forms of verbs.E.g. (1) He speak English fluently. underuse(2) They speaks English fluently. -overuseovergeneralization: Goed 21Grammar-based teachingGrammar-translation

23、methodAudiolingual method22Grammar-translation methodGrammar-translation method is the teaching method prevailing in the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries and is still used in foreign language teaching today. In a class of the Grammar-translation method, teaching is conducted by the native languag

24、e. A chapter in a typical textbook: would begin with a massive bilingual vocabulary list. Grammar points are highly presented in the textbook. Tedious translation and grammar drills would be used to exercise and strengthen the knowledge. Very little attention is placed on communicative aspects of th

25、e target language. 23The audiolingual methodThe audiolingual method was very popular from 1940s through the 1960s.The primary medium of language is oral: speech is language.Dialogues and drills form the basis of audiolingual classroom practices. Dialogues are used for repetitions and memorization. A

26、fter a dialogue has been presented and memorized, specific grammatical patterns in the dialogues are selected and become the focus of pattern-drill exercises. 2411.2.2 InputThe Input Hypothesis was proposed by Stephen Krashen in the 1970s. Language learning can take place when the learner has enough

27、 access to input in the target language. This input may come in written or spoken form. In the case of spoken input, it may occur in the context of interaction or in the context of non-reciprocal discourse . 25Views diverge greatly as to what kind of input should be provided for language learners. A

28、uthentic input Comprehensible input (Krashen): i+1: the language that learners can understand.Premodified input2611.2.2 InputComprehensible input (Krashen): i+1Language that contains structures that are “a little beyond” the learners current level of mastery (i+1). If input is understood, and there

29、is enough of it, i+1 is automatically provided. 27Input-based teachingDirect method Natural approach (Crazy English) Communicative approach28The Output HypothesisThe Output Hypothesis was proposed by Swain (1985) on the basis of her criticism of the input hypothesis. Swain holds that although compre

30、hensible input may lead to understanding, for full grammatical competence to be developed, learners need to be pushed into the production of comprehensible output. 2911.2.3 InterlanguageThe term of interlanguage was proposed by Selinker L. (1972)The type of language constructed by second or foreign

31、language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage. 30It is often understood as a language system between the target language and the learners native language. Interlanguage is a dynamic language system, which is constantly moving from the dep

32、arture level to the native-like level.31Can you give some examples of interlanguage?Ex. I like read books.I no have a book.3233Concerning the linguistic features of interlanguage, the following questions can be asked:Linguistically, how is interlanguage in general different from the target language

33、or the native language?In what way is lower level interlanguage different from higher level interlanguage?3411.3 Linguistics and Language TeachingLinguistic theories influence our general orientation in approaches to language teaching. Linguistic knowledge helps teachers to better explain the specif

34、ic language items they teach. 352.1 Discourse-based viewLinguistic patterns exist across stretches of text. These patterns of language extend beyond the words, clauses and sentences, which have been the traditional concern of much language teaching. Focuses on complete spoken and written texts and o

35、n the social and cultural contexts in which such language operates. Accordingly, it aims at developing discourse competence, similar to the well-known concept of communicative competence. 36Communicative competenceDell Hymes What a learner knows about how a language is used in particular situations

36、for effective and appropriate communication. It Includes knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary, knowledge of rules of speaking, knowledge of how to use and respond to different types of speech acts and social conventions, and knowledge of how to use language appropriately. 37It is believed that la

37、nguage learning will successfully take place when language learners know how and when to use the language in various settings and when they have successfully cognized various forms of competence such as grammatical competence (lexis, morphology, syntax and phonology) and pragmatic competence (e.g.,

38、speech acts). 38In the case of foreign/second language learning, language learners are encouraged to deal with accomplishing tasks, which are thought to help them acquire the target language. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) are the best known examples of

39、 such a theory. In the CLT or TBLT classroom, students are expected to learn by performing tasks. 39Task-based Approach “Learning by doing”Learning can only take place through the learners active participation in the construction of knowledge.Tasks form a significant part of the learning process and

40、 integration of new concepts/skills and prior knowledge. The teacher:A role of facilitatorStudents: the role of active learners 40Two broad types of tasks: real-world tasks and pedagogical tasks. A real-world task is very close to something we do in daily life or work. Pedagogical tasks are those ac

41、tivities that students do in the classroom but that may not take place in real life. 4111.4 Syllabus DesignA bridge between language teaching theory and language teaching practice. Translates theoretical understanding of language teaching and sets up an operable framework for language teaching. The

42、most important part of syllabus design is selecting and sequencing language items. 423.1 Types of syllabusStructuralSituationalFunctional/notionalCommunicativeTask-basedContent-based433.2 Components of a syllabusAims/goalsObjectives/targets/requirementsNon-language outcomes: affect cultivation (conf

43、idence, motivation, interest, etc.)Learning strategies, thinking skills, interpersonal skills, etc.Implementation: approaches, methods, principles, suggestions, textbooks, etc.Assessment/evaluation443.3 Current trendsCo-existence of the old and the newEmphasis on the learning processInclusion of non

44、-linguistic objectivesEmergence of the multi-syllabus454. Contrastive AnalysisA way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what not.Its goal is to predict what areas will be easy to learn and what will be difficult.Associated in

45、 its early days with behaviorism and structuralism.464.1 Main assumptionsLanguage is a habit and LL involves establishment of a new set of habits.L1 interferes with L2.Errors in L2 can be accounted for by differences between L1 and L2.Transfer occurs from L2 to L2, so similarities can be ignored.Therefore,Need for careful analysis of similarities