1、Choosing a Code,Diglossia 使用兩種語言或方言 Bilingualism and Multilingualism Code-switching,Code: Definition,Code (語碼): a term which is used to refer to language, speech variety, or dialect. It is more neutral than the others. The neutral term “code” can be used to refer to any kind of system that two or mo

2、re people employ for communication. Code: a system of secret words, letters, numbers, etc., used instead of ordinary writing to keep messages secret.,Diglossia: definition,Definition: a situation in which two distinct codes exist in a society that show clear functional separation; that is, one code

3、is employed in one set of circumstances and the other in an entirely different set. Narrow vs. broad / extended diaglossia,Diaglossia: defining characteristics (1),1. Two varieties are kept quite apart in their functions. The superposed variety (H variety) is highly codified and often grammatically

4、complex. It may be used to deliver sermons and formal lectures, to give political speeches and to broadcast news on television and radio and to write poetry, literature and editorials in newspaper. The low variety (L) may be use to address workers or household servants, in conversation with familiar

5、s, in soap opera, in “folk literature”. Each variety is viewed differently by those who are aware of both. Arabic situation: classical Arabic (H), regional colloquial varieties (L) In Switzerland: standard German (H), Swiss German (L) In Haiti, Standard French (H), Haitian Creole (L) In Greece, The

6、Katharevousa (H), Dhimotiki, Demotic (L),Diaglossia: defining characteristics (2),2. The H variety is the prestige variety; the low variety lacks prestige. Little prestige is attached to L variety; people may even deny that they know it although they may be observed to use it far more frequently tha

7、n the H variety. H variety is regarded as more beautiful, logical, and expressive. So the prestige evaluation of it is deserved. People think it appropriate to use H variety for literary use, for religious purposes. This feeling is always reinforced by the fact that a considerable body of literature

8、 will be found to be written in H variety rather than in L variety.,Diaglossia: defining characteristics (3),3. All children learn (naturally acquire) the L variety. The H variety is likely to be learned in some kind of formal setting, e.g., in classrooms or as part of a religious or cultural indoct

9、rination. Grammars, dictionaries and standardized texts are only available to H variety,Diaglossia: defining characteristics (4),4. The low variety often shows a tendency to borrow words from the H variety, particularly when speakers try to use the L variety in more formal ways. The result is a cert

10、ain admixture of H vocabulary into the L variety. On other occasions, there may be distinctly different pairs of words, i.e., doublets, in the H and L varieties to refer to very common objects and concepts. The actual situation is more complicated. For example, sometimes it is the H variety that bor

11、rows words from the L variety.,Concluding Remarks,Diglossia is a wide spread phenomenon in the world, well attested in both space (e.g. Haitian Creole and standard French) and time (e.g. classical Chinese, modern varieties of Chinese). People living in a diglossic community do not regard Diglossia a

12、s a problem. It becomes a problem only when there is a growth of literacy or when there is a desire to decrease regional and or social barriers, or when a need is seen for a unified national language. Traditionally, in each country the H variety has been associated with elites, and the L variety wit

13、h everyone else. Diglossia reinforces social distinctions; it is used to assert social position and to keep people in their place, particularly people who are not at the upper end of the social hierarchy. Any move to extend the L variety may be a direct threat to those who want to maintain tradition

14、al relationships and the existing power structure.,Bilingualism,Bilingualism (雙語制): the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. Bilingual: a person who uses at least two languages with some degree of

15、 proficiency. In everyday use bilingual usually means a person who speaks, reads or understands two languages equally well (a balanced bilingual), but a bilingual person usually has a better knowledge of one language than another.,Multilingualism,Multilingualism (多語制): the use of three or more langu

16、ages by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation. Multilingual: a person who knows and uses three or more languages. Usually, a multilingual does not know all the languages equally well. Multilinguals develop competence in each of the codes t

17、o the extent that they need it and for the contexts in which each of the languages is used.,Bilingualism or multilingualism is normal phenomenon in many parts of the world,Bilingual vs. Bi-dialectal, Multilingual vs. Multidialectal,It is difficult to distinguish the difference between them, but whet

18、her each separate variety is a dialect depends on how one defines dialect. So the bilingual-bidialectal distinction reflects social, cultural and political aspirations or realities rather than linguistic reality. e.g. Bilingualism: Hindi and Urdu, Serbian and Croatian Bi-dialect: Chinese, Mandarin a

19、nd Cantonese,Code-switching: definition,A clear definition of code-switching in Longman linguistic dictionary is a change by a speaker or writer from one language or language variety to another one. People are usually required to select a particular code whenever they choose to speak, and they may a

20、lso decide to switch from one code to another or to mix codes even within sometimes very short utterances and thereby create a new code.,Code-switching: linguistic classification,Poplack classifies code switching by the different structures in which it takes place. (1) inter-sentential code switchin

21、g: “ 一個小段落的英文標題譯成英文是：Slow and Sorrowful, Slow and Sad, Slow and Grave.” (2) intra-sentential code switching: “ 唯有真實，才是MUD游戲的true color.” (3) tag code switching: “關下門，OK？” (4) Code mixing occurs when conversants use both languages together to the extent that they change from one language to the other

22、 in the course of a single utterance without any associated topic change.,Code-switching: marked vs. unmarked,Myers-Scotton introduces a model of markedness into the study of code switching. He presents two kinds of code switchingmarked code switching or unmarked code switching. Each language in a m

23、ultilingual society is associated with particular social roles. By speaking a particular language, a participants signals her understanding of the current situation, and particularly her relevant role within the context.,Code-switching: situational vs. metaphorical (1),Gumperz proposes a distinction

24、 between situational and metaphorical code switching from the interactive view. The shifts of code in the conversation is either related to topics or role relationships. Social reasons, defined in terms of participants, setting, or topic, restrict the selection of codes.,Code-switching: situational

25、vs. metaphorical (2),(1) Situational code switching occurs corresponding to a change in the situation and social setting. One speaker can change a code to another considering the change in the participants, relationship, topic, setting, etc. In some bilingual or multilingual communities, people use

26、the official language on the formal occasions, but another language that they use in daily life when talking with a friend. Or take example of the Chinese situation, a chairman of the meeting, who speaks a dialect in daily life, would speak Putonghua in the meeting, and chat in the dialect.,Code-swi

27、tching: situational vs. metaphorical (3),(2) A metaphorical code switching alludes to different relationships that participants hold (e.g., to include or exclude someone from a conversation, to convey intimacy, or to emphasize a message). Comparing with the situational code switching, metaphorical c

28、ode switching relies on the use of two codes within a single social setting and with the same individual, and also it may be related to the change of topic, tone, role relationship, or for affective functions. For example, a group of Chinese students were talking about the traditional cultural custo

29、m, Li said: “People here get divorce too easily. Like exchanging fault goods. In China its not the same. Jia gou sui gou, jia ji sui ji. ？ What is the difference between the two?,Why do we choose a code?,The actual choice of a code in a setting clearly marked as bilingual can be a difficult task. So

30、cial and political relationships are too complicated to be resolved by such a simple linguistic choice. A speaker may deliberately (or cautiously) choose to use a specific language to assert some kind of right. For example, a bilingual (English and Welsh) resident of Wales may insist on using Welsh.

31、 Code choice can become a form of political expression, a move either to resist some other power, or to gain power, or to express solidarity.,Factors of choosing a code,(1) The suggested factors of choosing a code in different situations include: solidarity with listeners, choice of topic, and perce

32、ived (理解上的) social and cultural distance. In other words, the unconscious motivation of the speaker is an important consideration in the choice; (unconscious means the speaker hasnt been aware of switching from one code to another in his or her speech) people may not aware that they have switched or

33、 be able to report, following a conversation, which code they used for a particular topic. (2) People would employ the varieties to express fine gradations (等級) of feeling for others, involvement with the topic, politeness to strangers, and deference (or respect) to officials. However, the situation

34、 of choosing a code is quite complex because of the number of possibilities that are available, with the right choice highly dependent on the social context and intent of the speaker.,“Matched-guise technique (a technique to test reactions toward different codes) (1),Your choice of code reflects how

35、 you want to appear to others. And the code you choose does have important consequences for how others view you. This is apparent from (generally the same) various matched-guise experiments. (Matched-guise experiments are used in the studies of language attitudes. The use of recorded voices of peopl

36、e speaking first in one dialect or language and then in another; that is, in two guises. Listeners were asked to judge particular speech samples recorded by bilingual or bidialectal speakers using one language or dialect on one occasion and the other language or dialect in identical (the same but at

37、 different times) circumstances. The judgments sought are of (tried to get or find) such qualities as intelligence, kindness, dependability, ambition, leadership, sincerity, and sense of humor. For example, bilingual French Canadians may first speak in French and then in English. The recordings are

38、played to listeners who do not know that the two samples of speech are from the same person and who judge the two guises (each refers to French and English) of the same speaker as though they were judging two separate speakers each belonging to a different ethnic or national group. The reactions of

39、the listeners to the speakers in one guise are compared to reactions to the other guise to reveal attitudes towards different language and dialect groups, whose members may be considered more or less intelligent, friendly, co-operative, reliable, etc.),“Matched-guise technique (a technique to test r

40、eactions toward different codes) (2),Matched-guise technique can also clearly indicate that listeners are affected by code choices when they judge what speakers say to them. Certain codes are deemed more appropriate (suitable)for certain massages than other codes. Code and message are inseparable. C

41、onsequently, when a choice between codes exists, you must exercise that choice with great care since it can affect what happens to the message you wish to communicate.,The “face work” in choosing a code,Speakers are generally aware of the power dimensions in the situations they find themselves in (t

42、heir positions in the communication or roles in the conversation) and they also know who they want to be identified with, the solidarity dimension. They have some idea too of how they want to appear to others and how they want others to behave toward them, both of these matters of face. Code-switching can al