1、語言輸出,Background Immersion programs in Canada Conclusion Output Merrill Swain The Output Hypothesis Three functions Future directions The opinion of Stephen Krashen and assessment References,content,Background,In the early and mid-1980s,there are two aspects of the context that are important to menti

2、on. One aspect of the context was the dominant theoretical paradigm for second language acquisition (SLA) research at that time (1980s): information-processing theory. The second was the widespread growth of French immersion programs in Canada, the evaluations of which were showing some rather unexp

3、ected findings.,BACK,Immersion programs in Canada,The initiation of French immersion programs in Canada in the late1960s infused parents and teachers with renewed energy and excitement about the teaching and learning of French as a second language (FSL). In these programs, English speaking children

4、were taught some or all of their curriculum in French beginning with the start of school (early immersion), around grade 4 or 5 (mid immersion), or around grade 6 or 7 (late immersion). Evaluation after evaluation was conducted of these programs,加拿大沉浸計(jì)劃,BACK,Conclusion,Swain(1995)在對(duì)加拿大的法語沉浸式教學(xué)進(jìn)行調(diào)查時(shí)發(fā)

5、現(xiàn), 課堂上教師講多聽少,學(xué)生聽多講少,大部分時(shí)間都用于做筆記。 Swain 認(rèn)為出現(xiàn)這種現(xiàn)象的重要原因之一，在于學(xué)習(xí)者缺少語言輸出機(jī) 會(huì)，從事語言實(shí)踐活動(dòng)太少。 基于這些觀察，Swain 得出如下結(jié)論：盡管“可理解性輸入”對(duì)語言習(xí)得來說很重要，但不足以充分開發(fā)學(xué)習(xí)者的二語精煉能力。要想提高中介語的流利程度和準(zhǔn)確性，學(xué)習(xí)者不僅需要“可理解性輸入”，也需要“可理解性輸出”。,BACK,Different interpretation of the word “output”.,In the 1980s, the word “output” was used to indicate the out

6、come, or product, of the language acquisition device. Output was synonymous with “what the learner has learned”. There has been a shift in meaning from the 80 s to now from output being understood as a noun, a thing, a product to output being understood as a verb, an action, a process.,BACK,Merrill

7、Swain,Introduction: Merrill Swain is a Professor in the Curriculum, Teaching and Learning Department at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE) at the University of Toronto. Contribution: (1) She developed the output hypothesis; (2) She is also known for her work with Michael Canale on

8、 communicative competence.,BACK,語言輸出假說(The Output Hypothesis),針對(duì)Krashen提出的語言輸入假設(shè)中的不足,二語習(xí)得研究者Swain在1985年提出了語言輸出假設(shè)(the Output Hypothesis),她反對(duì)大量可理解性輸入對(duì)語言習(xí)得所起的決定性作用。Swain 認(rèn)為,盡管理解輸入語對(duì)二語學(xué)習(xí)很重要,但并不能保證學(xué)習(xí)者在語法準(zhǔn)確性方面達(dá)到近似本族語者的水平。學(xué)習(xí)者只有通過使用所學(xué)語言才能達(dá)到這一點(diǎn)。 Swain(1995)在對(duì)加拿大的法語沉浸式教學(xué)進(jìn)行調(diào)查時(shí)發(fā)現(xiàn), 課堂上教師講多聽少,學(xué)生聽多講少,大部分時(shí)間都用于做筆記。,

9、BACK,Swain( 1995) 在其語言輸出假設(shè)中闡述了輸出對(duì)語言習(xí)得的作用: 1. 注意/ 觸發(fā)功能( the noticing/ triggering function) ; 2. 假設(shè)驗(yàn)證功能 ( the hypothesis function) ; 3. 元語言功能( the meta-linguistic function) 。,Three functions,First, output has a noticing / triggering function.,The claim here is that while attempting to produce the targ

10、et language (vocally or silently (sub-vocally), learners may notice that they do not know how to say (or write) precisely the meaning they wish to convey. In other words, under some circumstances, the activity of producing the target language may prompt second language learners to notice or recogniz

11、e consciously some of their linguistic problems: it may bring their attention to something they need to discover about their second language (possibly directing their attention to relevant input). This awareness triggers cognitive processes that have been implicated in second language learningones i

12、n which learners generate linguistic knowledge which is new for them, or which consolidate their current existing knowledge (Swain （2） high levels of linguistic competence are possible without output; （3） there is no direct evidence that CO leads to language acquisition. In addition, there is some evidence that suggests that students do not enjoy being pushed to speak.,BACK,References,1. Merrill Swain. Output Hypothesis: Its History and Its Future J Foreign Language Teaching and Research,2008,1(40) p45