1、Important Linguistic Concepts Descriptive emphatic prohibition and scolding),超切分特征通過重音有規(guī)則的分配使得本族語者把賓語前置的修飾語與其他修飾語區(qū)分開來，試比較： A bull-/fight involves bulls. A /bull-calf is a young bull.,AFrench / teacher teaches French. A /French teacher is French. Atoy /factory produces toys. A /toy factory is a model

2、 of a factory used as a toy.,在看以下例句： I cant care less. I can care less. 按照邏輯的一般規(guī)律，這兩個(gè)話語應(yīng)該有著相互對(duì)立的語義，但是它們的理性語義卻是一樣的，即： I dont mind.,事實(shí)上，這種突破一般邏輯規(guī)律的現(xiàn)象在其它語言中也時(shí)常可見。以漢語為例： 今天街上好熱鬧。 今天街上好不熱鬧。,再看漢語中的“差點(diǎn)兒”和“差點(diǎn)兒沒”兩個(gè)表達(dá)法： 他差點(diǎn)兒摔倒了。 他差點(diǎn)兒沒摔倒。,用“差點(diǎn)兒”或“差點(diǎn)兒沒”去與說話人不希望實(shí)現(xiàn)的事情搭配，那么它們都是指事情接近實(shí)現(xiàn)而沒有實(shí)現(xiàn)。,我差點(diǎn)兒通過了考試。 我差點(diǎn)兒沒通過考試。,沒

3、”去修飾說話人希望實(shí)現(xiàn)的事情，那么“差點(diǎn)兒”含有惋惜希望的事情未能實(shí)現(xiàn)，而“差點(diǎn)兒沒”是指慶幸希望的事情發(fā)生了。,如果用“差點(diǎn)兒”和“差點(diǎn)兒,e) There are no absolute standards of correctness in language.,R.R.K. Harman et al (1973:328) 在“Dictionary of Language and Linguistics” 中指出：“標(biāo)準(zhǔn)語言是社會(huì)贊成使用的一種語言變體，在正式談話、協(xié)作以及對(duì)外國人進(jìn)行語言教學(xué)時(shí)使用?！?英國LINC Project (1994)把標(biāo)準(zhǔn)英語等同于 “詞匯和語法的正確形式”。

4、Trudgill (1975)在論及標(biāo)準(zhǔn)英語時(shí)認(rèn)為，標(biāo)準(zhǔn)英語“是一種方言。它為大部分受過良好教育的人所使用，通常用作書面語，是廣播、電視等宣傳媒介所使用的語言形式?！?雖然語言學(xué)家?guī)缀醵紡恼Z言使用和語言使用者兩個(gè)方面對(duì)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)英語進(jìn)行定義，但是在實(shí)踐中，衡量語言標(biāo)準(zhǔn)尺度仍然以規(guī)定語法為基礎(chǔ)，忽視大量語用數(shù)據(jù)與規(guī)定法則的抵觸現(xiàn)象。這種抵觸在現(xiàn)代英語中越來越明顯。,以不定冠詞為例，規(guī)定語法對(duì) “an”和“a”的使用有著明確的規(guī)定。 “an”用于發(fā)音以元音為首的詞前， “a”用于發(fā)音以輔音起始的詞前。,可是不定冠詞在有地位、有身份的使用者身上，在正式場合或廣播電視媒介中，使用情況又是怎樣的呢？,Penn

5、y Stewart 和Richard F. Fawcett (1994)在對(duì)收集的大量的語用數(shù)據(jù)進(jìn)行分析后指出， “an” 正在從美國標(biāo),準(zhǔn)英語中消失。他們采集的部分語言數(shù)據(jù)如下:,Names Example Time Politicians: George Bush a increasingly Jan.24,1990 a internal Jan.24,1990 a undefended Feb.15,1991 Jimmy Carter a election process Jun.14,1976Charles Schultz a arrangement Dec.9,1986 a accu

6、rate Dec.9,1986,News Broadcasters David Lettermana article Sept.2, 1980 Dick Cavett a emergency Feb.17, 1986 Eddie Murphy a Oscar Apr.11,1988 Bryant Gumbel a NBCApr.27,1990 Professionals Nancy Warr a impression Jan.17, 1990 John W.Nields a air Jan.15,1991,Actors: Edith a in-depth report Oct.29, 1986

7、 Andrey Meadows a interesting Nov.15, 1986 Guests on TV Talk Shows Howard Hunt a exchange Oct.12,1986 George Carvera openAug.26,1986,對(duì)不定冠詞“a”的上述偏離標(biāo)準(zhǔn)英語的使用是不能簡單地根據(jù)規(guī)定語法的“錯(cuò)” 與“對(duì)”來進(jìn)行價(jià)值判斷。以上的語用現(xiàn)象從一個(gè)側(cè)面反映英語不定冠詞的使用正處在變化過程之中，表現(xiàn)出 “a” 對(duì) “an”的取代趨勢。,這一正在發(fā)生的變化確實(shí)值得注意。從語義的角度來看，規(guī)定語法 “an” 與“a”的傳統(tǒng)區(qū)別也只具有純語法意義，并無語義價(jià)值區(qū)別。在

8、信息上，詞尾 “n”屬于多余成分。這就使得 “n”的脫落成為可能。,從語言的發(fā)展來看， “a”對(duì) “an”在現(xiàn)代英語中的替代也只是限定詞 “an”向 “a”演變過程的繼續(xù)。翻開詞源學(xué)詞典便可以得知，在英語中原先只有不定冠詞 “an”。在公元1125年，Old English Chronicles中就記錄了 “an pund”( a pound)的用法。,到了公元1150年， “an”位于輔音前逐漸失去詞尾 “n”，但在元音前仍然保留了詞尾 “n”?，F(xiàn)在 “an”在元音前也失去詞尾 “n”的趨勢可以看作為由 “an”到 “a”變化過程的最后階段。,進(jìn)入90年代，英語在不定冠詞使用上還在進(jìn)一步發(fā)展

9、，不定冠詞在某些結(jié)構(gòu)中有被省略的趨勢，而且這些趨勢表現(xiàn)出自己特定的規(guī)律。一般來說，需要滿足以下條件：,1）名詞處在表語結(jié)構(gòu)位置，且處在表語位置的名詞被另一可分級(jí)形容詞所修飾，例如： a. I am important artist. b. ? I am artist.,2）如果形容詞不是可分級(jí)形容詞，不定冠詞不可省略，例如：,a. It is an atomic weapon. b. ? It is atomic weapon.,在語言學(xué)領(lǐng)域，一般認(rèn)為上述a類例句的存在是由以下兩種結(jié)構(gòu)并合的結(jié)果： a. He is important. b. He is an artist.,傳統(tǒng)語法學(xué)家從語

10、言規(guī)定規(guī)則出發(fā)對(duì)這類冠詞省略現(xiàn)象視而不見，但是不定冠詞省略現(xiàn)象大量出現(xiàn)在英國廣播電臺(tái)、電視臺(tái)和報(bào)刊雜志上，例如： 1）(On Independent Television) It is extremely anxious time-worrying. (Eric Brady: 1 June 1993),I prefer to work with people who do think I am import artist.,( Tues. 21 June 1994),2）( A male performing artist on BBC Radio 4s Today Program),3） (

11、New York times Service in the International Herald Tribune),(Suzanne Cassidy: 25 Mar.1992),It is great shame. We are all fired, oh dear!,4） (The Sunday Times) An innocent man has been slaughtered He was decent, caring man who was disgusted by the vandalism and lawlessness around here. (James Dalrymp

12、le; 13 Jun 1993),5） (The Sunday Times) This was an error, but it was influential conflation of what the Routledge Dictionary of Race and Ethnic Relations lists as two separate items.,6）( New York Times Service in the International herald Tribune) It is contemporary mountain survival kit and more. (J

13、ohn Noble Wilford: 23 Jun 1994),在Collins English Dictionary中，對(duì) “they”的第三條定義是： they: not standard, refers to an indefinite antecedent such as one, whoever, or anybody，例如： If anybody objects, they can go.,their: belonging to or associated in some way with an indefinite antecedent such as one, whoever,

14、 or anybody，例如：,對(duì)“their”的第三條定義是：,Everyone should bring their own lunch.,The use of their as in sense 3 is sometimes regarded as unacceptable in formal contexts, though it has existed in the language for at least five centuries, and is common in informal contexts.,(Collins English Dictionary: third e

15、dition .1991. p.1597),該字典對(duì) “their”的定義更是耐人尋味。在對(duì) “their”的注釋中，字典編撰人員承認(rèn) “their”作為單數(shù)無標(biāo)記物主代詞已有至少五個(gè)世紀(jì)的歷史，且在非正式場合下廣為使用，但是仍然認(rèn)為 “their”的這種單數(shù)無標(biāo)記使用有時(shí)在正式語境中不可接受。稍有推理能力的人就會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)既然這種單數(shù)無標(biāo)記使用有時(shí)在正式語境中不可接受，這就意味著這種用法有時(shí)在正式語境中也是可以接受的。,由Henry Bosley Woolf主編的Websters New Collegiate Dictionary (1977)給 “they” 和“their”的部分定義如下：,t

16、hey: often used with an indefinite third person singular antecedent their: used with an indefinite third person singular antecedent: anyone in their senses-W.H.Auden,在給 “they” 和“their”的使用作定義時(shí)，字典編撰人員對(duì)這一使用的可接受性沒有進(jìn)行任何主觀價(jià)值判斷，足以說明 “they” 和“their”的單數(shù)無標(biāo)記使用已經(jīng)廣為流傳。,Sinclair在1987年編著的Collins Cobuild English La

17、nguage Dictionary(CCELD)中指出：,he: 1）to refer to a man or a boy who has already been mentioned or named, or whose identity is known. 2）to refer to a person whose sex is not known or is not stated, esp. after pronoun such as “someone”, or “nobody” or when you have used a singular noun to refer to a par

18、ticular class or group of people. Some people dislike this use.,they: 1）Refer to people, animals or things that have already been mentioned or whose identity is known. 2）Instead of “he” or “she”, to refer to a person whose sex is not known or stated, esp. after pronoun, such as “someone” or “nobody”

19、 , or when you have used a singular noun to refer generally to a particular class or group of people. Some people dislike this use.,Sinclair本人是反對(duì) “he”的無標(biāo)記使用，贊成把 “they”作為中性單數(shù)代詞去使用。這種用法在他編寫的這本字典中到處可見，如：,strut: someone who struts walks in a proud way with their head held high and their chest out, as if

20、 they are very important. Stub out: when someone stubs out a cigarette or cigar, they put it out by pressing the burning end against something hard.,Stubborn: someone who is stubborn is determined to do what they want and very unwilling to change their mind. Stuff: If you stuff someone in game, you

21、beat them easily.,現(xiàn)代英語在句法上的另一變化趨勢是 “who” 對(duì)“whom”的取代。在規(guī),定語法中，它們的功能分配是“明確的”。前者用于主格，,后者用于賓格。這種功能的劃分可以追溯到18世紀(jì)規(guī)定語法的正式建立。,可是語言的發(fā)展并不像規(guī)定語法家所想象的那樣。它的發(fā)展趨勢也不以他們的意志為轉(zhuǎn)移。自從規(guī)定語法的建立，這一 規(guī)則就受到了語言使用者的挑戰(zhàn)， 尤其是有影響的文學(xué)家對(duì) “who” 和 “whom”的混用使得它們在功 能上的劃分變得模糊不清，就連 著名的英國文學(xué)家Shakespeare也 沒有搞清楚 “who” 和 “whom”的使 用功能,例如：,(Shakespeare

22、: The Tempest),And in these fits I leave them, while I visit Young Ferdinard, whom they suppose is drownd.,This is a creature, would she begin a sect, might quench the seal of all professors else, makes proselytes of who she but bid follow. (Shakespeare; the Winters Tale),規(guī)定語法在18世紀(jì)對(duì) “who”與 “whom”的使用

23、規(guī)則只有兩條：,1）“who”只充當(dāng)主語； 2）“whom”只用作賓語。在作介詞賓語時(shí)，無論介詞位于代詞 “whom”之前，還是之后，都必須用 “whom”。,Sledd(1987), Quirk(1985)以及 Sinclair (1990)繼18世紀(jì)有關(guān) “who” 與“whom”的規(guī)定語法之后，認(rèn)為 “who”除了緊跟介詞之后需要用 “whom”以外，在其它情況下均可以使用 “who”。,Sapir的觀點(diǎn)比起Sinclair等人的觀點(diǎn)要顯得激進(jìn)得多。他認(rèn)為 “whom”在心理上是孤立的。,他認(rèn)為（1921：169） “唯一可以挽救形式配置的方法是完全拋棄 whom，因?yàn)槲覀兘?jīng)失去了創(chuàng)造新賓格形式的能力。,Flor Aarts（1989）曾用以下調(diào)查問卷在Louisiana State university對(duì)大學(xué)生進(jìn)行了調(diào)查，調(diào)查的部分內(nèi)容如下：,(1)The man _ ran the stop sign is dangerous (2)The little girl _ you watched eat all the cookies is fat. (3)That guy _ you met last night is a bit