Word-formationIV,TheMinorProcesses,EnglishLexicology(II),2,ImportantPoints,I.Abbreviation/ShorteningAcronymy:Initialisms/AcronymsClipping:BlendingII.Back-formationIII.ReduplicationIV.AnalogueV.WordsfromProperNouns,EnglishLexicology(II),3,I.TheIntroductionofShortening,Whennewwordsareformedbycompoundingoraffixation,theresultisofcoursealongerunit.Shorteningiscontrarytothetendofcompoundingoraffixation.ThereareseveralwaysofshorteningEnglishwordsasfollows:Acronymy:Initialisms/AcronymsClippingBlending,EnglishLexicology(II),4,I.Acronymy,1.1Initialisms1.2Acronyms,EnglishLexicology(II),5,1.1Initialims,Initialismsarewordsformedfromtheinitiallettersofwordswhicharepronouncedassequencesofletterse.g.,EEC.Acronymsarealsoformedfromtheinitiallettersofwords,butarepronouncedasaword,e.g.radar(radiodetectingandranging).1)non-technical:O.K.(=allcorrect)/VIP(veryimportantperson)2)borrowings:AD(=L.AnnoDomini),EnglishLexicology(II),6,3)propernouns:U.S.A./OPEC(=OrganizationofPetroleumExportingCountries)/IBM(=InternationalBusinessMachinesCorporation)4)technical:IQ(intelligencequotient)/N-bomb(=nuclearbomb,EnglishLexicology(II),7,IOC=InternationalOlympicCommitteeBBC=BritishBroadcastingCorporationISBN=InternationalStandardBookNumberCAD=computerassisteddesigncm=centimeterTB=tuberculosis,EnglishLexicology(II),8,CPUDIYCEOITAISOS,centralprocessingunitDoityourselfChiefExecutiveOfficerInformationtechnologyartificialintelligenceSaveourshipinternationaldirectdial,Writeoutinfullthefollowinginitialisms,EnglishLexicology(II),9,IDDGMTVIPP.S.a.m.p.m.,internationaldirectdialGreenwichMeanTimeveryimportantpersonpostscriptantemeridiempostmeridiem,Writeoutinfullthefollowinginitialisms,EnglishLexicology(II),10,1.2Acronyms,Acronymsarewordsformedfrominitiallettersbutpronouncedasanormalword.Mostofthewordsarefromthenameofanorganizationorscientificterms,EnglishLexicology(II),11,radarWAVESNATOAIDSBASIC,RadiodetectingandrangingWomenAppointedforVoluntaryEmergencyServiceTheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganizationAcquiredImmuneDeficiencySyndromeBeginnersall-purposesymbolicInstructionCode,Writeoutinfullthefollowinginitialisms,EnglishLexicology(II),12,N-bombD-NoticeG-manD-dayV-day,NuclearbombDefenseNoticeGovernmentmanDecimalizationdayVictoryday,Someacronymsareformedwiththeintialletterofthefirstwordplusthewholeofthesecond.,EnglishLexicology(II),13,Thistermreferstotheprocessbywhichawordoftwoormoresyllables(usuallyanoun)isshortenedwithoutachangeinitsfunctiontakingplace.Advertisement,examination,gymnasium,laboratory,fessor,allhavecommonly-usedclippedforms:adoradvert,exam,gym,lab,photo,Prof.Clippedwordsaregenerallyusedinlessformalsituationsthantheirfull-lengthequivalents:theyindicateanattitudeoffamiliarityonthepartoftheuser,eithertowardstheobjectdenoted,ortowardstheaudience.,II.Clipping,EnglishLexicology(II),14,2.1ClippedWords,ad=advertisementexpo=expositionphone=telephonepro=professionalmemo=memorandumtec=detectiveheliorcopter=helicoptercomfy=comfortable,EnglishLexicology(II),15,gymnasiumdormitoryhandkerchiefgasolinekilogram,gymdormhankyGaskilo,Giveclippingsforthefollowingwords,EnglishLexicology(II),16,influenzabusinessparachuterefrigeratortaxicab,flubizchutefridgetaxiorcab,Giveclippingsforthefollowingwords,EnglishLexicology(II),17,1.Noun-verbconversion2.2TypesofClipping,BackClippings/ApocopeFrontClippings/AphaeresisFrontandbackClippingsMiddleClippings/SyncopePhraseClipping,EnglishLexicology(II),18,1.2.1BackClipping,Theshorteningmayoccurattheendoftheword,sometimeswithanadditionof-o,-y,or-i.e.,picturePoliomyelitisProfessionalRhinocerosstereophonic,picPolioProRhinostereo,EnglishLexicology(II),19,advertisementbusinessCoca-colachampiondemobilizedoctorgasolinegentlement,adbizcokechampdemobDocGasgent,Giveclippingsforthefollowingwords,EnglishLexicology(II),20,hippopotamusinformationlaboratorylavatorymathematicsmechanic,hippoinfolablavmathmec,Giveclippingsforthefollowingwords,EnglishLexicology(II),21,ammunitionconsciousobjectortelevisionAustralianrecruittrigonometryumpireveterinarian,ammoconchytellyAussierookietrigumpvet,Giveclippingsforthefollowingwords,EnglishLexicology(II),22,2.2.3FrontClipping,bus(=omnibus)/bo(=hobo)/chute(=parachute)/coon(=raccoon)/copter(=helicopter)/dozer(=bulldozer)/mum(=chrysanthemum)/phone(=telephone)/quake(=earthquake)1.2.4frontandbackclippingsflu(=influenza)/fridge(=refrigerator)/tec(=detective)/scrip(=subscription)/vic(=convict),EnglishLexicology(II),23,1.2.5MiddleClipping,bike(=bicycle)/trike(=tricycle)/cric(=critic)/Frisco(=SanFrancisco1.2.6SomeclippedwordsareusedonlyinjournalismGovt(=government);Intl(=International);Dept(=department);Hkong(=HongKong);Spore(=Singapore,EnglishLexicology(II),24,1.2.1PhraseClipping,Manyphrasesandsentenceshaveshortened,simplybecausetheyaretoolengthyandusedtooofteninconversation.GoodbyeandfarewellwereonceGodbewithyouandFaretheewell.Afterallissaidtobetheremnantofafterallissaidanddone,andtheAmericanismfallisshortenedfromoffalloftheleaf.Thefollowingaresomerecentexamples:,EnglishLexicology(II),25,consols(=consolidatedannuities)pyro(=pyro-gallicacid)jet(=jet-propelledplane)private(=privatecommonsoldier)lube(lubricatingoil)/pub(publichouse),EnglishLexicology(II),26,III.Blending,ThedefinitionofblendingBlending（拼綴法）isaprocessofword-formationinwhichanewwordisformedbycombiningpartsoftwowords.Theresultofsuchaprocessiscalledablendortelescopicwordorportmanteauword(并合詞）.Blendingisthusaprocessofbothcompoundingandabbreviation.,EnglishLexicology(II),27,Examplesnewscast(newsbroadcast)brunch(breakfastlunch)smog(smokefog)talkathon(talkmarathon)slimnastics(slimgymnastics)videophone(videotelephone),EnglishLexicology(II),28,sci-fihi-fiworkaholicstagflationUnicomsitcommoteldawk,sciencefictionhighfidelityworkalcoholicstagnationinflationUnitedCommunicationssituationcomedymotorhoteldovehawk,EnglishLexicology(II),29,Structurallyblendsmaybedividedintofourtypes.,EnglishLexicology(II),30,avionicsbeautilitybitbotellidarmingysmog,aviationelectronicsbeautyutilitybinarydigitboathotellightradarmeanstingysmokefog,A.Firstpartofthefirstword+Lastpartofthesecondone,EnglishLexicology(II),31,comsatfortranmopedsitcomSci-fitelex,communicationsatelliteformulatranslationmotorpedalsituationcomedysciencefictionteleprinterexchange,B.Firstpartofthefirstword+Firstpartofthesecondone,EnglishLexicology(II),32,airtelfactionlunarnautslimnasticstalkathon,airhotelfactfictionlunarastronautslimgymnasticstalkmarathon,C.Wholeformofthefirstword+Lastpartofthesecondone,EnglishLexicology(II),33,docudramamedicaremotown,documentarydramamedicalcaremotortown,D.Wholeformofthefirstword+Lastpartofthesecondone,EnglishLexicology(II),34,II.Backformation,1.ThedefinitionofbackformationBack-formation（逆成法）isaprocessofword-formationbywhichawordiscreatedbythedeletionofasupposedsuffix.Itisalsoknownasareversederivation.Thisisbecausemanyoftheremovedsuffixesarenottruesuffixesbutinseparablepartsofthewords.eg.editor-editor,EnglishLexicology(II),35,Exampleseditfromeditorautomatefromautomationenthusefromenthusiasmgloomfromgloomydonatefromdonationbrainwashfrombrainwashingsleep-walkfromsleep-walking,EnglishLexicology(II),36,2.Back-formationusuallyinvolvesthefollowingtypesofwords:,2.1AbstractNounsdiagnosediagnosisdonatedonationenthuseenthusiasmemoteemotion,EnglishLexicology(II),37,2.2Humannouns,Examplesloafsculptburglebeg,LoaferSculptorBurglarbeggar,EnglishLexicology(II),38,2.3Compoundnouns,Exampleseavesdropmerrymakebabysit,eavesdeoppingMerry-makingbaysitter,EnglishLexicology(II),39,2.4Adjectives,Examplesdrowselazefrivol,drowsylazyfrivolous,EnglishLexicology(II),40,Note:Wordscreatedthroughback-formationaremostlyverbs.Thereareonlyafewthatcanbeusedasnounsorasbothnounsandverbs.eg.gloom-gloomygreed-greedyStylistically,back-formedwordsarelargelyinformalandsomeofthemhavenotgainedpublicacceptance.Therefore,theyshouldbeusedwithcare.,EnglishLexicology(II),41,III.Redulication,Minortypeofword-formationbywhichacompoundiscreatedbytherepetition.Theyarecharacterizedbybeingrhymedoralliterated.eg.go-go,pingpong,teeny-weenyWilly-nilly,wishy-washy,dilly-dallyShilly-shally,EnglishLexicology(II),42,ThecommonuseofReduplicativeare:A.Toimitatesounds:tick-tick,quack-quackB.Tosuggestalternatingmovementssea-saw:upanddown,toandprozigzag:rightandleftalternativelyatsharpanglesC.Toexpressonescontemptofthecharacter,appearanceandbehaviorofapersoneg.hocus-pocus,dum-dum,no-no,EnglishLexicology(II),43,D.todisparagebysuggestingthatsthisindisorder,orofsmallvalueorofinferiorquality.eg.fiddle-faddlehurry-skurryTopsy-turvyE.toshowonesapprovalSuper-duperTip-top,EnglishLexicology(II),44,IV.Analogy,Thedefinitionofanalogy（類比）Theprocessbywhichwordsorphrasesarecreatedorre-formedaccordingtotheexistingpatternsinthelanguage,EnglishLexicology(II),45,ExamplesMarathon-telethon,talkathonblue-collarworkers-white-collarworkers,gray-collarworkers,pink-collarworkers,gold-collarworkersenvironmentalpollution-visualoreyepollution,noisepollution,culturalpollution,graffitipollutionFirstFamily-FirstLady,FirstDogLandscape-moonscape,marscapeBirdseye-fish-eye,worms-eye,cats-eye,EnglishLexicology(II),46,V.WordsformProperName,NameofPeopleNameofPlacesNameofBooksTradenames,EnglishLexicology(II),47,Boycott:v&nrefusalorrefusetodobusinesswith,attendortakepartin,asawayofdisapprovaloropposition.Fromthe19thcenturylandlordCaptainBoycottCabal:v&nAcliqueormakesecretplansforpoliticalaction.FromtheinitiallettersofthefiveministersClifford,Ashley,Buckingham,Arlington,andLauderdale,Eng